The  Washington 
Electrical  Handbook 


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LOCAL  RECEPTION  COMMIHEE 


BOSTON    MASS. 


MEMORANDUM. 


This  electrical  handbook  is  one  of  a  series 
of  ten  similar  handbooks  prepared  under  the  atis- 
pices  of  the  American  Institute  of  Electrical 
Engineers  by  the  local  Reception  Committees  in  the 
Cities  of  Boston,  New  York,  Schenectady,  Montreal, 
Niagara  Falls,  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Pittsburg,  Wash- 
ington, and  Philadelphia.  These  are  the  stopping 
places  on  the  circular  tour  organized  by  the  Institute 
for  the  reception  and  entertainment  of  its  foreign  guests 
who  visit  the  United  States  in  connection  with  the 
International  Electrical  Congress  at  St.  Louis,  Septem- 
ber 12th  to  17th,  1904.  It  is  hoped  in  these  hand- 
books to  present  short  historical  sketches  of  the  cities 
visited  and  a  rapid  sur\"ey  of  the  power  plants  and 
important  electrical  industries  along  the  route. 

Washington.  No.        4:64 


The  Washington 

ELECTRICAL 
HAND-BOOK 


Being  a  Guide  for  Visitors  from  Abroad 
Attending  the  International  Electri- 
cal Congress,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
September,   1904 


Uasliiugtuu.  1.  (E. 

Published  under  the  auspices  of 

The  American  Institute   of 

Electrical  Engineers 

1904 


Copyrighted  by 

American  Institute  of 

Electrical  Engineers 

1904 


AS  TO  THE  CITY  OF  WASHINGTON. 

AMONG  tlie  cities  where  commerce  reigns  and 
manufactures  hold  sway  there  is  keen  com- 
l)etition.  There  is  only  one  National  Capital. 
Though  a  score  of  communities  scramble  for 
such  local  distinction  as  may  be  extracted  from  the  self- 
applied  term  '"metropolis,"  there  is  only  one  center 
of  government  of  the  United  States.  By  din  and  roar 
and  rattle  and  smoke  hundreds  of  towns  deservedly 
achieve  rank  in  the  realm  of  industry.  There  is  only 
one  incomparable  residence  city  in  tlic  United  States. 
That  is  the  city  of  Washington;  the  city  that  charms 
men  and  delights  women  at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 

Washington's  government  is  not  of  the  so-called 
popular  form,  but  it  comes  nearer  to  being  popular 
with  all  the  parties  directly  concerned  than  any  other 
variety  of  municipal  government  operating  in  this  coun- 
try at  this  time.  Tliree  Commissioners  are  appointed 
by  the  President  of  the  United  States.  These  Com- 
missioners— frequently  termed  the  "triumvirate"  l>y 
those  who  would  prefer  other  commissioners — frame 
estimates  for  the  municipal  sustenance  of  the  District 
of  Cohnnl)ia.  urge  Congress  to  permit  the  District  of 
Columbia  to  spend  tlie  money  which  the  District  raises 
through  taxation,  and  then,  when  appropriations  are 
made,  see  that  they  are  properly  di.sbursed.  The  Com- 
missioners are  generally  men  of  prominence — one  of 
them  is  required  by  the  law  to  be  an  officer  in  the 
Corps  of  Engineers  of  the  Army — and  it  is  superfluous 
to  add  that  they  are  scrupulously  honest.  As  a  con- 
sequence, all  moneys  are  expended  as  the  law  directs 
and  without  the  discounting  intervention  of  a  Board 
of  Aldermen  and  a  Common  Council.  The  novelty  of 
this  condition  must  appeal  strongh'  to  persons  who 
have  resided  in  cities  where  tax-paj'ers'  contributions 
are  regarded  as  legitimate  spoils  for  the  city's  fathers 
and  their  friends.  The  idea  that  the  people  of  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia  get  a   dollar's  worth  of  material   for 


6  The     W a  sli  ing  t  0 n 

a  dollar  must  be  extremely  fascinating  to  the  plucked 
American  who  has  breathed  the  atmosphere  of  muni- 
cipal carelessness,  not  to  say  corruption.  So  it  comes 
to  pass  that,  even  with  insufficient  appropriations, 
Washington  is  the  most  delightful  of  American  cities 
because  it  is  the  best  governed ;  because  its  municipal 
administration  is  unmunicipally  business-like  and  com- 
pletely  devoid   of  dishonesty's   taint. 

MISCXDEKSTOOD    REL.\TIOXSHIP. 

One  of  the  important  things  not  generally  under- 
stood b}'  the  public  at  large  is  the  peculiar  relationship 
existing  between  the  General  Government  and  the 
other  tax-paj'ing  residents  of  the  District  of  Columbia. 
That  relation  should  be  of  interest  to  every  American. 
There  is  an  impression  abroad  in  the  land — frequently 
evident  in  Congress — "that  Washingtonians  are  mendi- 
cants, dependent  upon  the  national  bountj-.  untaxed  or 
lightly  taxed,  and  draining,  vampire-like,  the  life- 
blood  of  every  Congressman's  tax-burdened  constitu- 
ents." If  such  an  impression  had  any  foundation  in 
fact,  Washington's  growth  would  soon  reach  phe- 
nomenal proportions.  The  human  desire  to  get  as 
much  as  possible  for  nothing  would  give  the  District 
a  population  of  more  than  a  million  within  a  decade. 
The  truth  is  that  Washingtonians  pay  their  share  of 
all  bills  and  are  not  indebted  in  any  way  either  to  the 
General  Government  or  to  the  component  parts  thereof 
which  are  located  without  the  limits  of  the  District  of 
Columbia. 

In  June.  1783.  Congress  was  in  session  in  Philadel- 
phia. Some  of  the  Revolutionar\-  soldiers  had 
grievances,  and  they  threateningly  organized  and 
marched  toward  the  then  seat  of  Government.  Both 
the  State  and  local  authorities  confessed  themselves 
unable  to  control  the  invaders,  so  Congress  fled  pre- 
cipitately. Thus  was  the  necessity  for  a  truly  National 
Capital  driven  home,  and  as  the  result  came  the  Con- 
stitutional provision  which  led  to  the  cession  of  terri- 
tory, ten  miles  square,  by  Marj-land  and  Virginia — the 
District  of  Columbia — the  site  of  what  President  Wash- 
ington called  the  Federal  City,  which,  in  1800.  became 
the  seat  of  Government. 


Electrical     Handbook  7 

In  all  the  original  city  site  there  were  6,iii  acres. 
The  original  owners  donated  to  the  United  States  for 
streets  and  alleys  3,606  acres,  and  982  additional  acres, 
divided  into  10,136  building  lots.  The  United  States- 
then  purchased  for  its  own  uses  541  acres  more,  its 
total  holding  amounting  then  to  5,129  acres.  All  that 
the  original  owners  received  were  982  acres,  sub- 
divided into  10.136  lots.  It  was  provided  that  the. 
541  acres  purchased  for  puljlic  building  sites  and  reser- 
vations should  be  paid  for  out  of  the  first  proceeds, 
of  the  lots  donated  to  the  Government.  This  was. 
done ;  so  the  Government  did  not  pay  even  one  cent 
for  the  vast  quantity  of  soil  it  owns  in  the  District  of 
Columbia. 

In  a  recent  Board  of  Trade  publication  the  then 
president  of  the  organization  sketched  briefly  the  con- 
ditions which  prevailed  as  to  the  National  Capital 
partnership  from  the  time  of  the  initial  agreements  as 
to  maintenance  until  the  year  1878,  when  the  organic 
law   now   in   operation   was  enacted. 

"The  original  owners  of  Washington,"  said  the 
writer,  "donated  fiv^e-sevenths  of  the  city's  soil  and 
yielded  the  right  of  self-government  to  the  Nation  on 
the  understanding  and  implied  agreement  that  the 
Nation  was  to  build  up  here  a  magnificent  capital,  at 
its  own  expense,  reimbursing  itself  in  part  from  the 
proceeds  of  the  sale  of  the  donated  lots.  A  pretentious 
city  was  planned,  and  lots  were  sold  by  the  Government 
on  the  strength  of  this  understanding.  Patrick  Henry 
complained  that  the  residents  of  the  District  might, 
under  the  arrangement,  "enjoy  exclusive  emoluments 
to  the  great  injury  of  the  rest  of  the  people,'  and  pam- 
phlet protest  was  entered  against  Congress  meeting  all 
the  needs  of  the  capital,  on  the  ground  that  the  inde- 
pendence and  self-respect  of  its  citizens  would  be  de- 
graded. It  was  from  the  beginning,  in  theory  at  least, 
the  city  of  the  Nation,  and  not  the  city  of  its  residents, 
and  the  primary  responsibility  for  its  development  has 
always  been  in  equity  upon  the  Nation,  and  the  resi- 
dents,   who   have   no    voice    in    the    disposition    of   the 


S  The     \Va  s  }ii  n  (/to  n 

money  exacted  from  tlicm.  are  the  incidental  con- 
tributors. In  spite  of  this  conceded  relation  of  Nation 
and  capital,  the  local  tax-payers  of  the  District  for 
three-fourths  of  a  century  were  compelled  to  assume 
practically  the  entire  burden  of  capital-making,  the 
Nation  violating  and  neglecting  the  obligations  which 
it  had  incurred.  In  1878  the  amount  of  the  contribu- 
tions of  the  resident  tax-payers  toward  the  expenses  of 
the  capital  were  fixed  by  law  at  one-half  the  total 
amount,  the  Nation  tardily  and  inadequately  fullill- 
ing  its   original   agreement." 

TREES.   P.\RKS,    HOMES. 

Countless  shade  trees  and  scores  of  miles  of  broad 
asphalted  streets  would  of  themselves  make  Washing- 
ton worthy  of  a  visit,  but  they  are  only  two  of  the 
many  items  which  go  to  make  up  the  sum  total  of  urban 
desirability.  Scattered  liberally  throughout  the  length 
and  breadth  of  the  city  are  parks  (officially  known  as 
Government  reservations).  Some  of  these  parks  are 
merely  grass-planted  triangles,  contributing  to  the 
fascinating  geometrical  design  which  caused  it  to  be 
said  that  "Washington  was  modeled  after  Versailles 
and  Versailles  from  a  spider's  web."  Others  are  great 
squares  or  circles  where  streets  and  avenues  converge", 
a  setting  of  emerald  for  choice  plants  and  flowers,  and 
frequently  sites  for  statues  of  soldiers,  sailors  and 
statesmen.  Still  others  cover  extensive  territory.  Rock 
Creek  Park  contains  more  than  eighteen  hundred 
acres ;  the  Zoological  Park  has  nearly  two  hundred 
acres ;  the  Mall  stretches  from  the  Capitol  to  the  Po- 
tomac. By-and-by  there  will  be  another  great  park. 
For  years  man  and  machinery  have  toiled  to  change 
the  once-noisome  and  pestilential  river  marshes  into  u 
pleasure  ground,  and  the  bulk  of  the  work  has  been 
done.  Inclosed  within  a  strong  sea-wall  the  old  river- 
"bed  has  been  transformed  into  tree-growing  soil  until 
there  is  a  vast  expanse  of  high  ground  which  in  the 
near  future  will  be  placed  in  the  keeping  of  landscape 
gardeners  to  the  end  that  the  public  may  be  pleased, 
•edified  and  physically  bettered. 

Suburban  Washington   is   extremelv   beautiful.      It   ;s 


E  le  ctr  i  c  a  I      Handbook  0 

l)eaiitiful  even  when  compared  with  the  city.  It 
jibounds  in  feasts  of  landscape,  in  liighland  sites  and 
woodland  retreats,  in  superb  drives,  crystal  streams, 
tine  travel  facilities  and  the  host  of  good  society.  From 
the  swift-flowing  and  disturbed  Potomac  on  the  west, 
over  the  hills  and  valleys  of  the  north  and  east,  around 
tt)  tile  now  broader  and  majestic  river  on  the  south, 
there  is  a  continuous  chain  of  subdivisions  within  the 
links  of  which  the  new-comer  may  find  enough  of 
picturesque  variety  to  puzzle  him  when  he  desires  to 
make  choice.  Here  is  an  attractive  field  for  the  inves- 
tor. Washington's  growth  is  no  longer  a  matter  of 
surmise. 

Diversity  of  architecture  is  one  of  the  reasons  why 
AVashington  is  such  a  desirable  place  of  residence. 
Years  ago  many  cities  became  enamored  of  certain 
styles  of  architecture,  and  it  .seemed  almost  impossible 
for  any  considerable  number  of  people  to  depart  from 
the  designs  which  pleased  their  fathers  and  grand- 
fathers. There  has  never  been  any  such  formalism  in 
Washington.  No  long  rows  of  undistinguishable 
houses  precisely  alike  in  every  external  and  internal 
detail,  and  monotonous  at  all  times,  destroy  Washing- 
ton's claim  to  municipal  individuality.  Architectural 
independence  is  the  rule  and  it  has  worked  admirably. 
Instead  of  wearisome  lanes  of  red  bricks,  white  door- 
steps and  green  blinds  are  the  esthetic  products  of 
modern  brains  and  sympathetic  hands.  This  quality  is 
by  no  means  confined  to  the  great  mansions:  in  fact, 
it  is  more  common  in  the  less  pretentious  homes. 
Household   art   is   a   notable   Washington   characteristic. 

VIT.VL   FICURES. 

Some  figures  are  confusing.  Some  are  untruth  tub 
Some  are  unattractive.  The  vital  statistics  of  the  Na- 
tional Capital  are  clear,  accurate  and  gratifying.  With 
a  total  population  closely  approximating  three  hun- 
dred thousand,  in  1902  the  white  death  rate  was  15.92 
per  thousand  inhabitants,  the  number  of  that  class 
being  about  two  hundred  thousand,  five  hundred.  The 
colored  residents  of  the  District  of  Columbia  nuni- 
■ered    then    something    like    ninety    thousand    and    their 


Electrical     II  and  b  o  o  k  It 

deatli  rate  was  29.13.  The  whole  death  rate  was  19.99. 
Small  as  the  rate  is — swollen,  however,  by  the  much 
larger  mortality  of  the  negro — it  lessens  steadily. 
Twenty-four  years  ago  the  white  death  rate  was  19.5-I, 
while  the  colored  mortality  was  represented  bj^  40.7S. 
Since  that  time  medical  science  and  education  have 
wrought  wonders ;  not  spasmodically,  but  continuously 
and  solidly.  Shallow  wells  have  been  filled  up,  marshes 
drained  and  streets  cleaned,  water-supply  increased, 
nn'lk  carefully  inspected,  food  adulterations  sought  ami 
located,  surface  drainage  stopped  and  sanitation  taught. 
Countless  efforts  to  defend  the  public  from  itself  and 
its  hardly  less  active  enemies  have  brought  forth  mar- 
velous results.  A  vigilant  and  etificient  Health  Depart- 
ment has  so  taken  advantage  of  the  broad  highways 
and  the  natural  sanitary  conditions  as  to  render  the 
inhabitants  proof  against  any  scare  of  an  epidemic. 
In  no  other  city  in  the  country  is  there  less  chance 
for  the  spreading  abroad  of  any  plague-like  affliction. 
A  common  community  weakness  is  boastfulness  as  to 
the  local  climate.  Washington  does  not  boast  of  its 
climate,  but  it  extracts  a  great  deal  of  quiet  satisfac- 
tion from  the  fact  that  in  the  summer  it  is  much  cooler 
than  are  many  cities  to  the  north  of  it.  Southern 
breezes  of  which  so  many  centers  of  populations  com- 
plain during  the  summer  season  reach  Washington 
cooled  by  a  thousand  miles  of  intimacy  with  the  At- 
lantic Ocean  and  more  than  two  hundred  of  miles  of 
close  communion  with  the  Chesapeake  and  the  Poto- 
mac. Even  when  .  the  days  are  really  hot  the  sun's 
heat  has  not  that  deadly  effectiveness  which  is  com- 
mon in  more  northern  cities.  The  local  record  of  sun- 
strokes and  heat  prostrations  shows  almost  entire  im- 
munity from  fatal  cases;  a  record  which  contrasts 
strongl}-  with  that  made  in  the  densely  inhabited  and 
narrow  streets  of  such  cities  as  New  York,  for  in- 
stance. There  have  been  times,  too,  when  Washing- 
ton has  luxuriated  in  warmth  while  regions  much 
nearer  the  equator  have  shivered  in  the  clasp  of  the 
ice  king.     There  is  probably  no  place  in  all  the  eastern 


12  The     Washington 

portion  of  the  United  States  where  the  temperature 
is  more  nearly  equa1)le  than  in  the  District  of  Columhia. 
Many  invalids  come  to  Washington  during  the  fall 
and  remain  until  it  is  time  to  visit  the  mountains  or 
the  seashore.  The  fact  that  Washington  is  situated  ni 
the  great  peach-growing  helt  is  proof  conclusive  as  to 
the  mildness  of  its  climate. 

THE    BEST    SCHOOL    IN    THE    COUNTRY. 

As  an  educational  center  Washington  has  many  ad- 
vantages over  other  American  cities.  One  in  every 
five  hundred  of  its  inhabitants  is  a  scientist  of  more 
than  local  repute.  Nowhere  in  all  the  Western  Hemis- 
phere can  there  be  found  such  a  vast  store  of  educa- 
tional material.  Here  is  the  only  place  where  the  study 
of  the  Government  of  the  great  republic  is  possible. 
Here  is  the  machinery  which  accomplishes  so  much. 
Here,  all  the  year  round,  the  executive  branch  puts  in 
operation  the  plans  committed  to  its  keeping  by  that 
body  which  directly  represents  the  people.  Years  might 
profitably  be  spent  by  students  in  observing  the  methods 
of  presidents,  cabinet  officers,  chiefs  of  bureaus, 
clerks  and  even  the  holders  of  humbler  positions. 
Here  Congress  meets  and  affords  ample  opportunity 
for  the  careful  investigator  into  our  legislative  methods. 
Hither  come  the  politicians,  the  seekers  after  office, 
the  manipulators  of  the  "pulls,"  the  statesmen  without 
visible  means  of  support,  the  claimants,  the  men  who 
hope  to  be  but  never  are. 

Object  lessons,  however,  are  not  the  only  lessons 
taught  in  Washington.  Here  is  the  great  Library  of 
Congress,  housed  in  a  magnificent  structure  the  decora- 
tions of  which  are  the  admiration  of  the  art  world ;  a 
library  that  seems  to  lack  little  of  comparative  com- 
pleteness. Here  are  the  government  departments,  each 
rich  in  material  for  study.  Here  is  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  and  National  Museum.  Here  is  the  Cor- 
coran Gallery  of  Art,  a  great  collection  splendidly 
sheltered.  Here  are  universities  and  colleges  and 
schools  in  profusion.  A  public  library,  only  recently 
established,  will  soon,  it  is  hoped,  be  sufficiently  de- 
veloped  to    supply   the    literary   demands    of   this   more 


Electrical     Handbook  13 

than  ordinary  intelligent  community.  The  building  in 
which  this  library  has  its  home  is  a  notable  contribu- 
tion to  architectural  Washington. 

Washington  has  strong  social  tendencies,  and  these, 
combined  with  the  refined  cosmopolitan  character  of 
Washington's  population,  add  largely  to  the  city's  at- 
tractiveness as  a  place  of  residence.  Here  may  be 
found  the  best  representatives  of  European,  Asiatic 
and  American  civilization ;  some  of  them  prominent  in 
the  official  world,  others  conspicuous  in  business  af- 
fairs; still  others  content  only  on  enjoying  the  fruits 
of  their  toil  and  the  remnant  of  their  days. 

Official  Washington  is  notable.  While  Congress  is 
in  session  there  can  not  possibly  be  complaint  of  dull- 
ness. There  are  banquets  at  the  Executive  Mansion ; 
Presidential  receptions  to  the  Supreme  Court,  the 
Diplomatic  Corps,  the  Houses  of  Congress,  the  Army 
and  Navy,  and  the  general  public ;  weekly  receptions 
by  members  of  the  Cabinet ;  Diplomatic  Corps  "at 
homes ;"  dinners  galore ;  all  the  varieties  of  teas ; 
theater  parties  without  number;  and  a  judicious 
sprinkling  of  opportunities  to  be  at  once  fashionable 
and  charitable.  It  .should  be  understood,  however,  that 
Washington  society  is  not  wholly  official  nor  is  it  al- 
together open  to  the  possessor  of  any  place  in  the 
Blue  Book.  Non-official  Washington  has  a  social  circle 
in  which  may  be  found  many  delightful  people  whose 
qualities  are  solid  and  enduring;  the  best  elements  of 
all  social  life  and  worthy  representatives  of  the  men 
and  women  who  have  made  the  city  what  it  is — a 
Capital   of  which   the   Nation   is  justly  proud. 

Washington  is  well  equipped  with  places  of  rational 
amusement.  There  are  first-class  theaters  and  second- 
class  theaters  and  even  third-class  theaters.  In  the 
summer  time  there  are  continuous  trolley  excursions  to 
glens  and  groves  and  lakes;  river  excursions  many 
times  a  day;  railroad  trips  to  fre.sh,  brackish  or  salt 
water ;  and  gardens  devoted  mainly  to  the  sale  of 
liquors  which  in  certain  seasons  of  the  year  are  sup- 
posed  to   have   cooling  properties. 


Electrical     Handbook  lo 

Light  manufacturing  could  not  find  a  more  congenial 
home  than  in  or  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia.  At  this  time  the  enormous  water- 
power  of  the  Potomac  is  unused,  but  the  day  of  such 
extravagant  and  inexcusable  wastefulness  is  rapidly 
passing.  A  company  is  now  planning  to  convert  into 
electrical  force  the  rushing  torrents  of  the  river  at 
Great  Falls  and  to  convey  that  same  force  into  the 
city  for  illuminating  and  propulsive  purposes.  That 
breach  will  probably  result  in  the  downfall  of  the  wall 
which  has  until  now  shut  out  the  industrious  who 
have  long  grieved  at  their  inability  to  turn  to  money- 
making  use  the  hundreds  of  sites  available  for  the 
less  objectionable  varieties  of  manufactures.  There  is 
a  big  local  market  for  almost  any  kind  of  a  factory 
product.  Coal  is  brought  directly  by  canal  from  the 
mines  in  the  Cumberland  district,  and  there  is  ample 
rail   and   river  transportation. 

Steam  communication  with  the  north,  south,  east  and 
west  is  maintained  by  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  the 
Baltimore  &  Ohio  Railroad,  the  Chesapeake  & 
Ohio  Railroad,  the  Southern  Railroad,  the  Atlantic 
Coast  Line  and  the  Seaboard  Air  Lme.  Electric  rail- 
roads operate  as  far  south  as  Alexandria,  Va. ;  north  to 
Rockville,  Md. ;  east  to  Laurel,  Md.,  and  west  to  Cabin 
John  Bridge,  Md.  All  the  prominent  suburbs  are 
electrically  connected  with  the  city.  Steamboat  service 
is  constant.  Three  of  the  finest  of  river  boats  are  run 
between  Washington  and  Fortress  Monroe,  Norfolk 
and  Newport  News.  Other  good  boats  run  to  Mount 
Vernon,  Marshall  Hall,  River  View.  Glymont,  Chapel 
Point.  Colonial  Beach,  Piney  Point,  all  the  other  Poto- 
mac landings  in  Maryland  and  Virginia,  and  up  the 
Chesapeake    to    Baltimore. 

THE    REPUHLIC     I.V     MINIATURE. 

Washington's  future  is  assured.  The  day  of  doubt- 
ings,  of  fears,  and  of  little  things,  has  departed  for- 
ever. President  Noyes,  of  the  Washington  Board  of 
Trade,  put  that  very  happily  when  he  said  "The  ward 
of  the  nation  will  never  again  be  starved  and  ill- 
treated  by  its  guardian,  once  contemptuous,  now  grown 


16  The      W  asking  ton 

proud  and  affectionate.  In  the  present  partnership  of 
nation  and  nation's  city  the  former  has  endorsed  the 
latter's  promise  to  prosper  as  well  as  to  pay.  The 
swelling  prospects  of  other  places  that  attract  men 
may  collapse,  mineral  deposits  may  fail,  tariff  changes 
may  ruin  the  husiness  of  a  manufacturing  town,  fickle 
commerce  may  flow  in  other  channels,  but  the  fortune 
of  the  republic  and  its  capital  are  inseparably  inter- 
woven, and,  while  the  States  of  the  Union  endure  and 
flourish  Washington  as  the  nation's  city  will  show  forth 
the  republic  in  miniature,  responding  in  its  own  growth 
to  the  national   development  and  prosperity." 


ELECTRICAL  DEVELOPMENT  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES. 


IT  would  not  be  unfair  or  unsafe  to  take  the  electrical 
development  of  a  people,  or  the  extent  to  which  a 
nation  uses  electrical  applications,  as  a  gauge  of  its 
civilization ;  and  from  this  point  of  view  the  data 
herewith  given  as  to  the  extent  of  the  iidustries  that 
are  based  on  electricity  in  the  United  States  maj'  have 
more  than  a  passing  value.  So  far  as  is  known,  this 
ccnmtry  is  the  only  one  in  which  a  sustained  effort  has 
been  made  by  the  Government  to  submit  to  the  statisti- 
cal processes  of  census  inquiry  the  whole  range  of  the 
electrical  arts;  but  it  is  believed  that  in  a  few  years 
similar  figures  will  be  obtainable  fcr  all  portions  of  the 
civilized  world.  enal)ling-  any  country  to  measure  itself 
with  others  as  to  its  utilization  of  the  telegraph,  the 
telephone,  the  trolley,  the  electric  light,  the  electric 
motor  and  other  kindred  appliances  by  means  of  which 
intelligence  can  be  swiftly  transmitted,  distances  be 
shortened,  the  darkness  brightened,  labor  lessened,  and 
sickness  alleviated.  While  some  figures  have  been  avail- 
able as  to  certain  branches  of  electrical  \vork,  in  various 
countries,  at  different  times,  the  rapid  growth  of  this 
essentially  modern  department  of  discovery  and  en- 
deavor renders  it  highly  necessary  that  every  civilized 
country  should  now  furnish  for  itself  and  others  all 
these  important  bases  of  comparison. 

As  to  the  United  States  of  America,  it  seems  only 
natural  tliat  with  its  time-consuming  remoteness  from 
the  Old  World,  its  vast  natural  resources,  its  energetic 
population,    and    its    bent    for    industrial    organization. 


18  The      Washington 

associated  with  an  unusual  keenness  of  the  inventive 
faculties,  there  should  have  been  manifested  a  swift  ap- 
preciation of  all  the  benefits  that  practical  electricity 
could  bestow.  Hence,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  average 
annual  expenditure  per  head  of  the  population  in  the 
United  States  of  America  is  virtually  not  less  for  elec- 
trical current  and  supplies  than  for  daily  bread.  Such  a 
statement,  which  may  at  first  glance  appear  astounding, 
is  easily  tested.  The  outlay  annually  on  actual  appa- 
ratus is  equal  to  $2  per  head.  The  toll  paid  to  the  trol- 
ley systems  of  the  country  is  $3  or  better  per  head.  The 
earnings  of  the  electric  light  companies  are  just  about 
$1  per  head,  while  the  value  of  the  service  given  by  iso- 
lated plants  is  reckoned  as  approaching  the  same 
amount.  The  earnings  of  the  telegraph  companies 
reach  roughly  50  cents  per  head,  and  the  telephone  com- 
panies get  slightly  better  than  $1  per  head.  To  these 
items  must  be  added  those  due  to  the  outlay  on  a  long 
list  of  other  services,  including  electricity  in  mines,  in 
medicine,  in  elevators,  in  automobiles,  etc.,  and  it  will 
be  seen  that  a  total,  fully  authenticated  in  all  respects, 
is  reached  of  at  least  $8.50  to  $9  per  head  per  year. 
Surely  such  an  expenditure  is  not  surpassed  or  even 
equaled  in  any  other  country  in  the  world.  It  is  equally 
certain,  as  thus  demonstrated,  that  the  American  of  to- 
day  li\-es   as  much  by  electricity  as  l)y  Ijread, 

The  industrial  branches  of  American  electrical  devel- 
opment may  now  be  taken  up  in  brief  review,  using  the 
data  chiefly  that  has  been  systematically  collated  since 
the  last  general  census  of  1900- 1  by  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  the  Census  in  Washington,  when  for  the  first 
time  an  investigation  was  made  separately  as  to  the  pro- 
duction of  electrical  apparatus  and  supplies — an  inquiry 
that  will  be  repeated  in  the  manufacturing  census  of 
1905,  as  required  by  Congress.  The  average  growth  in 
such  production  is  found  to  have  been  at  the  rate  of  15 
to  20  per  cent,  for  the  last  twenty  years.     Hence  the  esti- 


Electrical     Handbook  IfJ 

mated  output  during  1903  was  as  follows,  based  upon 
the  official  returns  of  1900- 1  : 

Dynamos    $  1 7.000,000 

Transformers    5,000,000 

Switchboards,   for  lighting  and  power 2,750,000 

Motors,   for  all  purposes 30,000.000 

Storage   batteries    4.500.000 

Primary    batteries 1.250.000 

Carbons    2.000,000 

Arc   lamps 2.250,000 

Incandescent    lamps 5.500,000 

Lighting    fixtures 3,750,000 

Telephonic    apparatus 25,000,000 

Telegraphic   apparatus 2,000,000 

Insulated  wires  and  cables,  submarine  cables  30.250.000 

Conduits,  interior  and  underground 1.750.000 

Rheostats,  heating  and  cooking  apparatus.  ..  2.500.000 

Annunciators     250.000 

Electric   clocks 150.000 

Lightning  arresters,  fuses,  etc 750.000 

Pleasuring   instruments 3.000.000 

iNIiscellanecnis    apparatus 19.000.000 


$158,650,000 
All  these  figures  are,  as  noted  above,  predicated  on 
the  actual  reports  filed  in  the  census  of  1900-r,  showing 
nearly  $105,000,000  in  that  year,  and  check  closely  with 
the  annual  reports  published  by  the  leading  manufac- 
turers. The  capital  and  labor  employed  cannot  be  given 
with  corresponding  approximation,  on  account  of  con- 
solidations, new  industries,  greater  use  of  automatic 
machinery,  etc..  but  it  may  be  noted  that  in  1900-I 
strictly  electrical  manufacturers  filed  their  returns  with 
the  census  office  to  the  number  of  580.  These  concerns 
and  individuals  employed  45,877  persons  and  had  $83,- 
130,943  capital  engaged  in  the  business.  The  ratio  of 
increase  in  these  three  items  has  not  been  quite  so  high 
as  in  output.  An  industry  that  has  attained  a  produc- 
tion of  $150,000,000  in  manufactured  goods  must  ob- 
viously  stand   high    among   the    leading   occupations    in 


20  The     W  ashing  to  n 

the  country.  It  must,  moreover,  be  recollected  that  all 
of  this  apparatus  serves  as  an  underlying  constituent  of 
great  public  service  systems  and  plants  for  railway 
work,  lighting,  telephony,  telegraphy,  etc. ;  so  that  in 
the  whole  industry  the  actual  increase  in  investment,  in- 
clusive of  real  estate,  buildings,  line  construction  track, 
engines,  waterwheels,  etc.,  would  represent  not  far  short 
of  $750,000,000.  The  annual  increase  in  capitalization  in 
the  street  railway  field  alone  is  now  about  $450,000,000; 
although,  of  course,  capitalization  is  not  to  be  taken  as 
synonymous  with  investment. 

The  Telegraph  is  the  oldest  public  service  industry  in 
the  United  States  of  America,  as  it  is  elsewhere,  but,  as 
the  figures  show,  it  is  also  the  smallest.  Indeed,  each 
new  industry  has  apparently  rolled  forward  with  a  big- 
ger wave,  the  telegraph,  telephone,  electric  light  and 
electric  railway  each  being  larger  than  its  predecessor 
in  strict  order  and  succession.  Whether  this  relation  of 
magnitude  will  be  maintained,  cannot  be  foretold,  but  it 
has  persi-stea  for  some  years,  and  encourages  thoughtful 
speculation  as  to  the  place  that  electric  power  is  now 
taking  universally  for  the  propulsion  and  operation  of 
mills,  factories,  mines,  docks,  printing  plants  and  a  thou- 
sand other  kinds  of  industrial  establishment.  It  is  all, 
however,  evolutionary   from  the  telegraph. 

The  Director  of  the  Census  has  issued  a  preliminary 
report  on  the  commercial  telegraph  systems  of  the 
United  States  for  the  year  ending  December  31,  1902. 
The  report  includes  only  commercial  telegraph  com- 
panies owned  and  operated  within  the  United  States, 
which  were  in  operation  during  any  portion  of  the  year, 
no  statistics  being  given  for  foreign  telegraph  com- 
panies operating  in  the  United   States. 

Number   of  companies 2\ 

Common  stock  :    ( i ) 

Authorized,  par   value $104,383,075 

Issued,  par  value 99,870.225 

Gross    income 37.55-.450 

Total    expense 28.490,219 

Dividends  and  interest  on  bonds 6,084,919 

Net    surplus 2,977,312 


Electrical     Handbook  21 

Miles  of  wire  operated i,24<S,6o2 

Number  of  messages  sent  during  1902 90,844,789 

Number  of  telegraph  offices 27,352 

Batteries  in  offices  : 

Primary — Number  of  cells 634,491 

Storage — Xuml)er    of   cells 19.639 

(i)  Exclusive  of  the  capitalization  of  ^he  Postal- 
Telegraph  Cable  Company,  which  was  reported  as 
$100,000. 

It  is  to  be  observed  in  passing  that  herein  are  in- 
cluded no  figures  of  railway  telegraph — the  steam  rail- 
roads of  the  country  all  having  elaborate  message  and 
signal  services,  but  presenting  no  general  statistics. 
One  important  branch  of  telegraphy  that  must  not  be 
overlooked,  however,  is  that  of  the  municipal  electric 
fire  alarm  and  police  patrol  systems.  In  regard  to  these, 
the  Census  Office  has  issued  this  year  an  interesting  re- 
port, the  first  of  its  kind.  From  this  it  appears  that  in 
1902  there  were  764  fire  alarm  systems,  with  2,798  miles 
of  pole  line  owned  and  10,952  miles  leased;  with  a  total 
wire  of  2S.302  miles,  out  of  which  28.8  per  cent,  was 
underground  in  859  miles  of  conduit.  Distributed  along 
these  circuits  were  37.7.39  signalling  boxes  or  stations, 
of  which  34,776  were  on  poles  or  posts  and  2,963  in 
■booths,  etc. ;  or  one  to  the  mile  of  circuit,  roughly.  In 
1902  these  boxes  reported  85,070  fire  alarms,  or  between 
two  and  three  to  the  mile  of  circuit.  The  central  office 
apparatus  comprised  155  manual  transmitters,  295  auto- 
matic transmitters,  and  452  receiving  registers  of  all 
kinds,  grouped  at  the  various  central  offices  or  fire 
headquarters.  These  were  associated  with  1,973  re- 
ceiving and  1. 36 1  transmitting  circuits,  connected  with 
214  telegraph  switchboards,  and  with  62  telephone 
switchboards  with  a  total  capacity  of  6,480  drops  or 
lines.  The  "single  circuits'"  extending  from  headquar- 
ters and  returning  thereto  were  442.  Current  was  fur- 
nished by  57.010  cells  of  primary  battery  and  49,327 
storage  cells.  Xo  very  definite  data  can  be  given  as  to 
employees  and  salaries,  as  the  duties  are  so  frequently 
combined   with   those   of   other   or   non-electrical   work. 


22  The     Wa  shingto  n 

but  the  figures  of  55  larger  systems  showed  84  salaried 
officials  and  clerks  earning  $139,477  per  annum,  and  818 
wage-earners  with  total  wages  of  $804,065.  Of  these 
55  systems,  25  were  fire  alarm  exclusively,  21  police 
patrol  exclusively,  and  9  a  combination  of  the  two. 

The  police  patrol  system  is  of  later  development  than 
the  fire  alarm,  which  dates  back  to  1852,  although  at 
least  one  police  service  goes  back  to  1867-  In  1902  there 
were  148  plants  of  this  character.  They  had  17,339 
miles  of  wire  overhead  and  9.01 1  miles  underground  in 
271  miles  of  conduit  owned  by  the  departments  and  in 
502  miles  of  leased  conduit.  The  circuits  were  occupied 
b}'  9,476  signalling  boxes  and  1,170  telephone  boxes, 
while  this  equipment  was  supplemented  by  1.998  special 
telephones.  Over  all  these  instruments  40,626,505  police 
calls  were  sent  or  received,  of  which  23.393,812  were 
telephonic  and  17,232,693  were  signalled.  The  central 
office  equipments  embraced  83  manual  transmitters,  30 
automatic  transmitters,  439  receiving  registers,  1,272  re- 
ceiving circuits,  983  transmitting  circuits,  70  telegraph 
switchboards  and  187  telephone  switchboards,  with  a 
total  capacity  of  3,055  drops  or  lines;  24.477  cells  of 
primary  battery  and  13,317  cells  of  storage  battery.  The 
distribution  of  call  stations  was  about  one  to  two  and  a 
half  miles  of  circuit,  with  a  daily  average  of  more  than 
ten  calls  per  box.  Broadly  speaking,  the  telephone  ap- 
pears to  have  been  used  four  times  as  much  as  the  plain 
signal  box.  In  New  York  City  a  special  patrol  tele- 
phone system  was  introduced  in  1903-4  by  which  the 
New  York  Telephone  Company  furnishes  at  a  rental 
about  660  police  telephone  stations  on  Manhattan  Island. 

The  latest  available  authentic  figures  of  the  telephone 
industry  are  those  of  the  Census  Office  for  the  year 
1902,  being  the  first  data  of  the  kind  secured  officially  in 
the  United  States.  These  statistics  do  not  include  any 
relating  to  private  telephone  work,  i.  e..  private  systems 
not  connected  with  exchanges,  although  a  great  deal  of 
work  was  disclosed  in  the  way  of  co-operative  "rural" 
or  "farmer"  lines,  which  really  represent  exchanges 
still  in  a  formative  stage  and  constituting  the  "new  ma- 
terial," so  to  speak,  for  large  networks. 


24-                  The    W  as  hin  g  t  0  n 

Construction,  Eqi'ipment,  Etc. 

Number  of  systems 4,151                   3,  I57                 994 

Miles  of  single  wire 4,350,486           4,779-571           7o.9'5 

Telephones  of  all  kinds 2,315,297            2.225,981            89,316 

Number  of  subscribers 2.137,256            2,048,736           88,520 

Number    of    automatic    pay 

stations 73,887                73,869                  18 

Number    of    all    other    pay 

stations 4^,393                 48,009                 374 

Farmer  or  r\iral  lines  owned 
by  com.  .systems  : 

Number  of  lines 15,59^  15,598        

Miles  of  single  wire 13S.426  13^,426        .... 

Number  of  telephones..  121,905  121,905        

Number  of  party  lines 258,166        (1)248,908      (2)9,258 

Number   of    telephones    ou 

party  lines SS6. 152               3oS.57i            77,5^1 

Number  of  public  exchanges  10,361                  9,419                942 
Number    of   private    branch 

exchanges 7,883  7,883        

Manual    switchboards,   total 

number 10,842                   9, 901                 941 

Common  batterj-  system..  837                     830                    7 

Magneto  system 10,005                   9,°7i                 934 

Automatic  switchboards 54                        53                     i 

Mes    or   talks  during    year, 

total  No 5, 070, .555, 345    4,071,413,070    99,142,275 

Local  exchange 4,949.850,491    4,851,416,539    98,433,952 

Long  distance  and  toll....  120.704,854        119,996,531          708,323 
Employees  and  Wages  : 
Salaried  officials  and  clerks  : 

Total  number 14,124                 13,958                 166 

Total  salaries $9,885,886          $9,871,596          $14,290 

Wage-earners  : 

Total  average  number 64,628                63,630                99S 

Total  wages $26,369,735       $26,206,065       S163.670 

Revenue  and  Expenses  : 

Total  revenue $S6,825,536        $86,522,211  (3)i303,325 

Total  expenses  (including 
taxes  and  fixed  charges  ex- 
cept int.  on  bonds) 61,152,823          60,871.002          281,821 

Dividends  paid 14,982,719          14,981,649              1.070 

Interest  on  bonds 3.511,948           3,511,768                 180 

Net  surplus 7,178,046            7,157,792            20.254 

( 1 )  Urban  party  lines. 

(2)  Rural  party  lines. 

(3)  Includes  assessments. 


Electrical     H an  d  b  o  o  k  Jo 

Condensed  Balance  Sheet. 

Total.  Commercial.  Mutual. 

Total  assets 5452,172.546  $449,4^5.693  $2,686,853 

Construction  and  equipment 
(including  real   estate  and 

telephones) 389.278,232  386,662.619  2,615.613 

Stocks  and  bonds  of    other 

companies 9,938,342  9,938,342      

Machinery.tools and  supplies        9,689.691  9,657,956  31.735 

Bills  and  accounts  receivable      30.629,677  30,619.204  19,383 

Cash  and  deposits 12,291.840  12,271,718  20,122 

Sundries 344.764  344,764      

Total  liabilities 452,172.546  449.485.693  2,686,853 

Capital  stock  274.049,697  273,388,432  661,265 

Bonds 73.981,361  73,978,361  3.000 

Cash  invested  (unincor.  sys- 
tems)         6,i6r,299  4,571,318  1,589,911 

Bills  and  accounts  payable 44.491,066  44.411,639  79,427 

Sundries 1,124,265  884.561  289,704 

Net  surplus  and  reserves 52,364.858  52,301,382  63.476 

In  addition  to  the  reports  obtained  from  commercial 
and  mutual  telephone  sj^stems.  shown  in  the  above  table, 
the  bureau  secured  reports  of  4.985  "independent" 
farmer  or  rural  lines  having  49,965  miles  of  single  wire 
and  55.747  telephones.  These  tigures  added  to  the  totals 
for  the  commercial  and  mutual  systems  give  a  grand 
total  for  the  continental  United  States  of  9,136  systems 
and  lines.  4.900.451  miles  of  single  wire  and  2.371.044 
telephones. 

A  number  of  commercial  systems  operate  in  rural 
districts,  but  combining  the  totals  for  farmer  or  rural 
lines  owned  by  commercial  systems,  mutual  systems  and 
independent  farmer  or  rural  lines  gives  a  total  of  21.577 
systems  and  lines.  259.306  miles  of  single  wire  and  266,- 
968  telephones,  operated  exclusively  in  rural  districts. 

In  addition  to  the  statistics  presented  above  for  the 
continental  United  States,  reports  were  received  for  one 
commercial  system  in  Alaska  and  seven  in  Hawaii,  hav- 
ing a  total  of  4.732  miles  of  single  wire.  2.493  telephones 
of   all    kinds,    3,461.000    messages    or    talks    during   the 


26  The    Washington 

year,  $112,068  total  revenue,  $76,307  total  expenses  (in- 
cluding taxes  and  lixed  charges),  and  $25,858  paid  in 
dividends,  leaving  a  net  surplus  of  $9,903. 

Until  a  few  years  ago  the  whole  telephonic  develop- 
ment of  the  United  States  was  done  under  the  aegis  of 
the  "Bell  system."  With  the  expiration  of  fundamental 
Bell  patents,  a  movement  developed,  striking  and  wide- 
spread, known  as  the  "independent,"  as  the  result  of 
which  competition  has  been  developed  on  a  large  scale 
peculiarly  illustrative  of  the  energy  and  rapidity  with 
w'hich  enterprises  are  often  pushed  in  America.  An 
equality  in  development  with  tlie  Bell  system  has  been 
claimed,  indeed,  and  it  is  necessary  to  note  the  fact,  as 
many  telephonic  comparisons  between  the  United  States 
of  America  and  other  countries  based  on  Bell  statistics 
alone  are  obviously  erroneous  and  far  from  doing  jus- 
tice to  the  facts.  It  may  be  doulited  whether  the  "inde- 
pendent" statistics,  extraordinary  as  they  are  for  the 
very  short  period  of  time  over  which  they  extend,  equal 
those  of  the  Bell  system,  twenty-five  j'ears  old ;  but  they 
mu.st  be  taken  into  account.  It  would  appear  from  the 
ligures  above  that  the  capitalization  per  telephone  instal- 
lation is  about  $195.  It  is  generally  conceded  from  the 
fact  that  the  Bell  system  is  largely  centered  in  the  cities, 
that  the  capitalization  for  the  Bell  installations  would 
necessarily  be  heavier  than  for  those  in  the  independent 
networks.  On  the  basis  of  $195  over  the  entire  industry, 
and  accepting  the  Bell  stations  at  the  end  of  1902  as 
being  only  1,277,983,  it  would  appear  that  the  Bell  in- 
vestment was  much  the  larger  half.  The  total  revenue 
is  placed  at  nearly  $87,000,000,  but  at  only  $50  per  sta- 
tion the  Bell  figures  would  represent  at  the  end  of  1902 
$64,000,000,  or  nearly  75  per  cent.  The  total  of  single 
wire  for  the  whole  industry  is  placed  at  4.850.486  miles. 
The  Bell  system  at  the  end  of  1902  had  slightly  more 
than  half  this.  The  total  number  of  telephone  talks  is 
given  as  slightly  over  5,000,000,000  for  the  whole  in- 
dustry, while  the  figures  for  the  Bell  system  for  1902 
were  given  in  the  annual  report  of  that  year  as  3,000,- 
000,000.  The  increase  in  the  investment  in  telephony  is 
supposed  t(i  reach   from   fifty  to  seventy-five   millions  a 


Electrical     Handbook  27 

year  at  the  present  time,  but  on  this  basis  the  Bell  sys- 
tem holds  its  own,  for  the  total  amount  added  to  con- 
struction and  real  estate  by  the  companies  in  the  system 
during  1903  was  put  down  at  $35,000,000,  while  in  1902, 
the  year  of  the  census  report,  it  is  even  said  to  have 
reached  $37,000,000. 

The  visitor  to  the  United  States  from  abroad  must 
therefore  bear  these  figures  in  mind  in  comparing 
American  with  other  telephonic  development,  and  es- 
pecially in  using  the  data  given  in  the  Bell  telephone 
literature  compiled  for  and  distributed  at  the  St.  Louis 
Exposition.  According  to  these  admirable  little  pamph- 
lets, the  Bell  system  in  188 1  connected  463  cities,  towns 
and  villages.  In  1904  it  connected  26,128.  In  1881  it 
had  47.880  subscribers;  in  1904  it  had  1,525,167.  In  1881 
the  ratio  of  telephone  subscribers  to  total  population 
was  I  to  1.074.  where  in  1904  it  is  i  to  53.  In  1881  the 
average  daily  number  of  telephone  communications  was 
300,000.  In  1904  it  readies  10,134,020,  a  gain  from  2  per 
inhabitant  to  42.  The  number  of  employees  rose  from 
1,650  in  1881  to  61,135  in  1904.  These  and  other  data 
must  all  be  revised  by  the  census  figures  in  order  to 
arrive  at  a  more  comprehensive  idea  of  telephonic  devel- 
opment and  utilization  in  America. 

The  latest  American  figures  obtainable  for  the  elec- 
tric light  and  power  industry  are  those  of  the  Census 
Office  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1902,  since  when  cen- 
tral station  work  has  undergone  a  very  considerable  de- 
velopment. It  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  these  figures 
do  not  include  any  data  for  isolated  plants,  estimated 
roughly  at  50,000,  with  a  consumption  of  material  and 
an  output  of  current  fairly  commensurate  with  those 
of  central  stations.  It  must  also  be  pointed  out  that  in 
addition  to  what  the  central  stations  do,  no  fewer  than 
252  electric  railway  companies  in  1902  reported  the  gen- 
eration of  current  for  sale  for  light  and  power  purposes, 
and  that  118  of  those  had  accounts  itemized  sufficiently 
to  show  gross  earnings  from  it  of  $7,703,574.  The  fig- 
ures for  3.619  authentic  central  station  figures  follow, 
adding  that  the  capital  stock  and  funded  debt  issued 
was  : 


28  The     W  a  s  h  i  n  g  to  n 


Total.  Private.  Municipal. 

Number  of  establishments 3,619  2.S04  815 

Cost  of  plants ?502.  iS  1,511     $480, 161.038  522.020,473 

Earnings  from  operation,  total  83.585,410  76,748.554  6,836.856 

From  light  service. 69,731,931  62,983,068  6,748,863 

Arc  lighting -".S. 459. 437  22,070,192  3,389.245 

Commercial  or  private....  8,443,280  8,203,114  240,166 

Public 17,016,157  13,867.078  *3, 149,079 

Incandescent  lighting 44,272,494  40,912.876  3,359.618 

Commercial  or  private....  41,536,392  38,668.096  2.868,296 

Public 2,736,102  2,244,780  *49i,322 

All  other  electrical  service....  i.', 853, 479  13,765,486  87,993 

Income  from  all  other  service..  1,560,013  1,431.761  128,249 

Gross  income 85,145,423  78.180,318  6,965,105 

E.xpenses  : 

Total 67,688,075  62,442,088  5,245,987 

Salaries  and  wages 20,551,989  18,672,267  1,879,722 

Supplies  and  materials 22,814,758  20,392,467  2,422,291 

Rent  of  stations  and  offices  1,285,546  1,270,798  14,748 

Taxes 2,654,065  2,643,945  10  120 

Insurance 886,445  820,804  65,641 

Miscellaneous 6,994,227  6,645,567  348,660 

Interest  on  bonds 12,501,045  11,996,240  504,805 

*  Estimated  value  if  paid  for  at  pre%'ailiug  rates. 

The  average  number  of  employees,  with  total  salaries 
and  wages,  was  as  follows : 

Total.  Private.  ^^'^^h'- 
Average     number   of  employees  and 
total  salaries  and  wages  : 

Salaried  officials  and  clerks 6.976  6.026  950 

Salaries -5,632,880  $5, 174,499  $457,3Si 

Wage-earners 23,258  20,791  2,467 

Wages '4,919, 109  13,496,  768  1,422,341 

Foremen  and  inspector..* 1,560  1,478  82 

Wages 1.358,272  1,297,585  60,687 

Engineers  and  tiremen. 8,020  6,671  i,349 

Wages 5,201,988  4,416,929  785,059 

I,inemen 4,209  3,860  349 

Wages 2.704,529  2,503,957  200,572 

All  other  employees 9.469  8,782  687 

Wages 5.654,320  5,278,297  376,023 

The  power  plant  equipment  was  : 

Power-plant  equipment :  MnniH- 

Steam  Engines-  Total,     Private.   *'^«,'« 

Number 5,921          4,861  1,060 

Horsepower 1.377,041  1,230,023  147,018 

Water  wheels — 

Number... 1.37S          1.296  82 

Horsepower 381,134      396,916  11,218 


Electrical     Handbook 


Generating  plant :  „      ,      „_;...._    Munici- 

Dynanios—  '°'^^'-     t^^nate.  p^j 

Direct-current,  constant  voltage — 

Number 3.^20          3.402  41S 

Horsepower 441,621      41s. 088  23,533 

Direct-current,  constant  amperage — 

^■"'"her 3,537          2,955  582 

Horsepower i95,43i       157.668  37,763 

Alternating  and  polj-phase  current — 

Number 5.106          4,284  822 

Horsepower 978,428      887,740  90,688 

The  output  of  the  generating  equipment  and  the  na- 
ture of  the  apparatus  consuming  current  were  as  fol- 
lows : 

Output  of  station  :  Total.  Private.        Municipal. 

Kilowatt  hours — total  for 

year 2.507,051,115    2,311,146,676     195,904,439 

Line  construction  : 

Miles  mains  and  feeders..  12,470,494         10.936,603        1.533,891 

Lighting  service: 
Arc  lamps — 

Total  number 385,208  334. 4'3  50>  795 

Commercial  or  private .  173,502  167,709  5.793 

Public 211,706  166,704  45,002 

Incandescent  lamps  - 

Total  number 18,006.521  16.429.060        1,577,461 

Commercial  or  private..  17.552.756  16,058.111         1,494,645 

Public 453,765  370.949  S2.S16 

These  figures  are  subject  to  the  correction  or  enlarge- 
ment of  the  118  street  railway  companies  noted  above. 
These  companies  showed  an  aggregate  of  $6,469,726 
from  such  service,  of  which  $4,074,684  was  from  com- 
mercial lighting  and  $1,417,985  from  public  lighting, 
while  no  less  a  sum  than  $768,040  was  earned  from 
motor  service.  This  income  was  derived  from  the  oper- 
ation of  33.863  arc  lamps,  of  which  2,582  were  open 
and  13.603  enclosed,  in  commercial  use ;  and  10,868 
open  and  6.860  enclosed,  in  public  use.  In  the  way  of 
incandescent  lighting  there  were  1.442,685  lamps  in  serv- 
ice, of  which  the  vast  majority,  or  1.313.303  were  of  16 
candle-power :  while  all  but  19.026  of  the  larger  number 
were  in  commercial  as  distinguished  from  public  use. 
As  to  motor  service,  the  street  railway  companies  report 
supplying  current  to  10,049  stationary  motors  of  35.688 
horse-power  capacity.  There  were  also  56,601  meters  on 
the  circuits.  As  has  been  noted,  these  are  the  figures 
given  by  118  companies  keeping  separate  accounts  that 
enabled  the  compilation  of  these  detailed  statistics. 
There  were,  however,  252  companies  which  generated 
current  for  sale  for  light  and  power  purposes. 

In  addition  to  the  equipment  shown  above,  there  were 
employed  in  the  central  stations  193  boosters,  with  a 
capacity  of  17,911  horse-power,  and  132  rotaries.  with  a 


Electrical     Harid  b  o  o  k  31 

capacity  of  63.cSt7  horse-power.  As  to  sub-station  ap- 
paratus, the  number  and  horse-power  of  storage  battery 
cells,  transformers,  rotary  converters  and  miscellaneous 
equipment  in  sub-stations  were  required  to  be  reported 
separately.  The  totals  are  summarized  in  the  following 
table: 

,p  .    ,  Private  Municipal 

^"^'-  Stations.         Stations 


Kind  of  equipment. 


On  =  Oq  "  "^^ 


Storage  battery  cells 8,388  25,284  8,388  25,784  ... 

Transformers 2,525  420,667  2,490  419,368  35  1,299 

Rotary  converters 163  85,556  162  85,546  i  10 

Miscellaneous 140  21,443  '35  21,269  5  174 

In  addition  to  the  8,388  storage  battery  cells 
in  sub-stations,  with  a  capacity  of  25,284  horse-power, 
there  were  6,881  cells,  with  a  capacity  of  16,355  horse- 
power, reported  for  the  main  power  plants,  making  the 
number  of  cells  for  all  classes  of  storage  batteries  15,269. 
with  a  capacity  of  41,639  horse-power.  It  will,  of  course, 
be  understood  that  the  capacity  of  the  storage  batteries 
cannot  be  taken  in  definite  horse-power,  that  depending 
so  much  on  the  rate  of  discharge  ;  but  the  figures  here 
given  were  such  as  are  justified  by  the  reports  from  the 
central  stations  as  to  battery  output  of  current,  al- 
though it  was  not  found  feasible  to  reduce  this  to  horse- 
power-hours, the  rate  of  discharge  varying  somewhat 
indefinitely. 

In  addition  to  the  2.525  transformers  in  sub-stations, 
with  an  indicated  capacity  of  420,667  horse-power,  there 
are  207,151  on  consumers'  circuits,  with  a  total  capacity 
of  922.774  horse-power,  making  an  aggregate  of  209.676 
transformers,  with  a  capacity  of  1.343,441  horse-power. 
The  miscellaneous  equipment  consists  largely  of  motor- 
generator  sets  and  boosters. 

As  to  the  output  noted,  it  is  natural  that  some  diffi- 
culty would  be  experienced  in  eliciting  it.  especially 
with  plants  carrying  chiefly  an  arc  light  load,  or  un- 
checked by  consumption  meters.  There  were  reported, 
however,  582,689  consumers'  meters,  of  which  98.7  per 
cent,  were  electro-mechanical,  the  others  being  chemi- 
cal. Each  station  was  required  to  report  its  kilowatt- 
hour  average  per  day  and  the  total  for  the  year,  and 
also  the  horse-power  of  the  current  average  per  day  and 
the  total  for  the  year.  In  the  majoritj'  of  the  stations 
no  record  is  kept  of  the  output  of  current,  and  the 
amounts  reported  are  largely  estimates  based  on  the 
voltage  and  amperage  of  the  machines  with  reference  to 
the  hours  of  operation.     The  average  kilowatt-hour  out- 


39  The     Washington 

put  of  current  per  clay  for  all  stations  is  6,814,074,  and 
the  total  for  the  year  2,453.502,652.  The  horse-power- 
hours  of  current,  average  per  day,  is  9,097,796,  and  the 
total  for  the  year  3,270.162.309.  The  stations  operated 
under  private  ownership  reported  92  per  cent.,  and  those 
under  municipal  control  only  8  per  cent,  of  the  total 
kilowatt  and  horse-power-hours  of  current.  The  total 
dynamo  capacity  of  central  stations  was  1,624,980  horse- 
power, or,  roughly,  ahout  1.200,000  kilowatts.  As  the  aver- 
age kilowatt-hour  output  of  current  per  day  is  shown  to 
have  been  6.814,074,  it  appears  from  this  that  the  elec- 
tric light  -Stations  are  on  a  basis  of  average  daily  opera- 
tion for  six  hours,  or.  approximately,  25  per  cent,  of 
their  possible  capacity  of  production  of  current.  As  the 
gross  earnings  from  operation  are  shown  to  have  been 
slightly  over  $84,000,000.  and  the  total  production  of 
current  for  the  year  to  be  2,453,502,652  kilowatt-hours,  it 
appears  that  the  earnings  per  kilowatt-hour  were  not 
quite  4  cents.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  to  be  under- 
stood that  the  central  stations  are  able  to  sell  all  the 
current  that  they  produce,  as  the  inevitable  losses  be- 
tween the  switchboard  and  the  consumers'  lamps  and 
motors  reduce  the  apparent  earning  capacity. 

The  following  statement  shows  the  number  of  arc 
and  incandescent  lamps  reported  by  private  and  munici- 
pal stations  as  used  for  commercial  or  other  private  and 
public  service,  and  also  the  total  annual  income  from 
each  variety-  of  lamp,  with  the  average  income  per 
lamp  : 

Arc  L,ainps.  Incandescent  Lamps. 

o  -  >  o  ^^ 

Items.  iSS  ,1  y  H  vtj  ^  v 

Private  stations:                5o>  ^^                Uo>                (S^ 

Number  of  lamps ....       168,180  166,723      16,243,853          372,740 

Total  income 18.220,154  $13,871,646    .?39,o39,557    $2,257,927 

Average  income  per 

lamp J48.88  $83.20                $2.40              £606- 

Municipal  stations  : 

Number  of  lani)  s 5,793  45, 002        1.494,531            82.920 

Totalincorae $240,166  $3,149,079      $2,868,296      *$49i.322- 

Average  income  per 

lamp $41.46  $69.98                $192              $5  9S 

*  Estimated  value  if  paid  for  at  prevailing  rates. 


K  le  ctr  i  c  a  I    II  a  n  d  h  o  o  k  33 

There  were  99,102  stationary  power  motors  of  all 
kinds  connected  with  a  capacity  of  619,283  horse-power, 
reported  as  being  in  operation  by  private  stations,  and 
1,962  with  a  capacity  of  5,403  horse-power,  in  operation 
by  municipal  stations,  making  an  aggregate  of  101,064 
stationary  motors,  with  a  capacity  of  624,686  horse- 
power. No  inclusion  was  made,  however,  of  fan  mo- 
tors, nor  of  the  2,370  railway  motor  cars  served. 

As  to  the  circuits  employed  in  the  industry,  the  fol- 
lowing t'lgurcs  were  reported: 


Items. 


C8,0  -_0  'u  O 


Total  :  :-H  c  ■;;;  ^  -^ 

Mains 107,263.63        93.352.95        13.910.68        87.0        13.0 

Feeders  17  8.S0.51        16,452.28         1,428.23        92.0         So 

Underground  — 

Mail's  5.^47-71  .5.40S.53  43916        925  7.5 

Feeders 2,276.55  2,262.02  14  53        99  4  o.6 

t)verliead*— 

Mains  loi. 3.^3.76        87,91313        13,47063        86  7        13.3 

Feeders 15.592-59        14,18175  1,410.84        91.0  90 

Submarine — 

Mains ,'^216  31-27  089        97.2  2.8 

Feeders ir.37  851  2.86        74.8       25.2 

*  Includes  79  50  miles  of  mains  and  120  26  miles  of  feeders  for  elec- 
tric railway  service  owned  by  lighting  company. 

As  to  the  circuits  employed,  there  were  125,144.14 
miles  of  main  and  feeder  wires  reported  for  both  pri- 
vate and  municipal  stations.  Of  this  total,  109.805.23 
miles,  or  87.7  per  cent.,  were  reported  by  private  sta- 
tions, and  15,338.91  miles,  or  12.3  per  cent.,  by  municiprd 
stations.  The  mains  and  feeders  for  underground  cir- 
cuits measured  8,124.26  miles,  or  6.5  per  cent,  of 
the  total,  and  the  overhead  circuits  116.976.35 
miles,  or  93.5  per  cent.  Comparatively  few  sta- 
tions have  a  record  of  the  actual  length  of  the  wirer 
strung  and  ready  for  service,  l)ut  the  amounts  re 
ported  were  careful  estimates  prepared  by,  or  under 
the  direction  of,  the  management  of  each  station.  In 
several  instances  it  was  found  that  electric  light  stations 
supplied  current  to  electric  railway  companies,  and  that, 
in  the  majority  of  such  cases,  the  railway  companies 
owned  the  tnain  and  feeder  wires  over  which  this  cur- 


3A 


T  h  e     W  a  .s  Ji  i  a  g  t  o  n 


rent  was  supplied.  There  were,  however,  199.75  miles 
of  mains  and  feeders  for  electric  railway  service  owned 
by  the  central  stations.  These  quantities  were  included 
in  the  statistics  presented. 

The  next  and  largest  branch  of  electric  industry  to  be 
reviewed  is  that  of  street  railways.  The  general  data 
of  the  Census  Ofifice  report  for  1902  are  given  in  the 
tables  below  for  some  987  companies,  of  which  817  were 
"operating"  and  170  lessor.  The  first  table  shows  the 
nature  of  the  systems  as  compared  with  1890,  when  the 
first  and  only  previous  street  railway'  census  was  taken : 


1902. 

1890.               Percent,  of 
increase. 

CHARACTER  OF 
POWER. 

Number  of 
companies. 

Miles  of 
single 
track. 

Z  CI 

"o  *    1     (-"O 
Miles  of       jj-i    :      °£ 
single         —  S    ;     vZ 
track.         E  =■  1    5  M 

1 

United  States... 

849 

♦22.589.47 

761 

8,12302 

i    11.6          178.1 

Electric 

747 

67 

26 

9 

121,920.07 
259  10; 
240  69 
169.61 

126 
506 

55 
74 

1,261.97 

1  Aai2.a        I  fii7.o 

5,661.44     !  186.8          t95  4 
488.31     ;  :52  7          :5o.7 
711.30    11^87.8          I76.2 

Cable 

Steam..- 

*  Includes  12  48  miles  of  track  duplicated  in  reports  of  different 
companies. 

f  Includes  6  06  miles  operated  by  compressed  air. 
J  Decrease. 

The  following  table  reveals  the  vast  growth  in  capital- 
ization : 


ITEMS. 


1902. 


Funded  debt  out.<standing... 

Earnings  from  operation.... 

Operating  expenditures 

Percentage  operating  ex- 
penses of  earnings 

Number  of  passengercars... 

Number  of  fare  passengers 
carried 

Number  of  employees  * 


Number  of  companies 087 

Cost    of    construction  and 
equipment $2,167,634,077 

Capital  stock  issued [$1,315,572,960 

"       -    -   •   ■ 5992,709,139 

S247.553.999 
$142,312,597 


57-5 
60,290 

4,809,554.438 
133-641 


706 


$389,357 

$289, 058 

$189, 177 

$50,617 

$62,011 


211 
,185 


68.4 
2.505 


3,  202 

3,764 


Per  cent 

of 
increase. 


39.8 


4567 
355.1 
424.7 
173.2 
1295 


85-5 


137  7 
S8.9 


*  Exclusive  of  salaried  officials  and  clerks. 


Electrical     H  a  ii  d  b  o  o  h 


The  following  was  the  income  account  for  1902: 

Gross  earnings  from  operation <247,55.;,999 

Operating  expenses 142.312,597 

Net  earnings  from  operation 105,  24r,402 

Income  from  other  sources 2,950,628 

Gross  income  less  operating  expenses 108,192,030 

Deductions  from  income : 
Taxes— 
On  real  and  personal  property..$5, 835, 542 

On  capital  stock 2,931,252 

On  earnings 2,  719,  287 

Miscellaneous 1,592,818 

$13,078,899 

Interest — 

On  luuded  debt 35,223,284 

On  real  estate  mortgages 931O78 

On  floating  debt 2.769,549 

-    38,085,911 

Rent  of  leased  lines  and  terminals 25,518,225 

Other  deductions  from  income 912,018 

77. 595. 053 

^"et  income 30.506,977 

Deductions  from  net  income : 

Dividends  on  $45,047,155  preferred  stock 2,053,  202 

Dividends  on  $305,897,861  common  stock 13,828,908 

15,882,110 

Surplus  for  year $14,714,867 

The  item  of  $2,950,628,  "income  from  other  sources," 

consists  principally  of  the  interests  on   deposits,  loans, 

bonds,  and  other  securities ;  but  it  includes  also  income 

from    other   operations    carried   on    in   connection   with 

street  railways,  such  as  waterworks,  ice  plants,  etc. 

The  total  amount,  $247,553,999,  given  as  the  operating 

earnings  of  all  operating  companies,  was  composed  of 

$233,821,548    received    from    passengers,    $303,608    from 

chartered   cars,    $1,038,097   from   freight,   $432,080   from 

mail,    $401,672    from    express,    $7,703,574    from    sale    of 

electric  current  for  light  and  power,  and  $3,853,420  from 

miscellaneous  sources. 

The    operating    expenses,    $142,312,597.    are    analyzed 

below : 


Items. 

Amount. 

Per  cent, 
of  total. 

Total 

$142,312,597 

12,118,296 
16, 676, 532 
23. 062, 328 
62,454,679 
25,812,009 

2, 188,  753 

8.5 

16.2 

43  9 
18.2 

Maintenance  of  equipment 

Operation  of  power  plant 

Operation  of  cars 

AVages,  supplies,  etc.,   incidental   to   elec- 

1.5 

S6  The    Washington 

The  details  furnished  of  the  industry  are  of  the  most 
interesting  and  varied  nature.  It  is  to  be  remembered 
that  at  the  time  of  the  report  the  Manhattan  Elevated 
system  in  New  York  had  not  been  completely  electrified 
and  that  a  number  of  interurban  systems  now  in  opera- 
tion were  unfurnished.  There  were  766  companies  re- 
porting the  use  of  electricity  or  other  mechanical 
motive  power.  The  motive  power,  however,  was  not  all 
generated  in  the  805  power-houses  shown,  as  some  com- 
panies rented  motive  power  from  light  and  power  com- 
panies. 

Steam  was  used  by  540  companies  as  the  primary 
motive  power  to  generate  electric  current.  The  statis- 
tics concerning  steam  power  classify  the  engines  accord- 
ing to  horse-power.  There  were,  in  all,  2,336  engines, 
with  a  total  horse-power  of  1,298,133,  or  556  horse- 
power per  engine.  Of  this  number  1,588  engines  were 
reported  as  having  500  horse-power  or  under  each,  and 
a  total  horse-power  of  420,551,  or  an  average  of  265  for 
each  engine.  There  were  431  engines  having  a  horse- 
power of  over  500  but  under  1,000  each,  the  total  horse- 
power being  2gj,/S7!  or  691  per  engine,  and  317  engines 
having  a  total  horse-power  of  more  than  i.ooo  each,  the 
total  being  579,825  horse-power,  or  1,829  per  engine. 

There  were  159  water  wheels  employed,  with  horse- 
power of  49,153,  used  as  the  primary  power  in  the  gen- 
eration of  electric  current.  The  average  horse-power 
per  water  wheel  was  329.  There  were  129  wheels  of  500 
horse-power  or  less,  12  of  over  500  and  under  1,000.  and 
18  of  1,000  and  under  2,000.  Of  the  total  horse-power, 
34,215,  or  69.61  per  cent.,  was  reported  by  16  companies 
in  the  States  of  California,  Georgia.  Maine,  ^linnesota 
and  New  York.  The  report  also  shows  15  gas  engines 
of  1,925  horse-power  used  for  miscellaneous  purposes : 
301  auxiliary  steam  engines  were  reported,  with  horse- 
power of  10,074,  used  by  84  companies  for  miscellaneous 
purposes,  driving  pumps,  etc.  There  were  3,853  steam 
boilers  reported,  with  an  indicated  horse-power  of  903.- 
205.  The  number  of  steam  boilers  exceeds  the  number 
of  main  and  auxiliary  steam  engines  by  1,216,  while  the 
horse-power  of  the  engines  exceeds  that  of  the  boilers 


Electrical     Ilandb  o  o  I:  37 

by  405,002.  The  average  capacity  of  the  boilers  is  234 
horse-power.  Direct-current  and  alternating-current  dy- 
namos were  segregated  according  to  the  horse-power, 
and  below  are  given  the  totals  for  the  United  States : 

Alternating 
Direct  Current.  Current. 

Generators.  Number        H.  P.      Number        H.  P. 

Total 2,86:        972.314  44i  231,924 

500  H.  P.  or  under- 2.324       422.924  329  61.935 

Over  500  H.  P.  butunderi.ooo...      328        218.934  54  36,418 

1,000  H.  P.  and  over 209        330.456  58  »33i57i 

The  use  of  direct-current  machines,  each  having  1,000 
horse-power  or  over,  was  reported  by  59  companies. 
The  use  of  small  machines  still  predominated,  more 
than  three-fourths  of  all  the  machines  being  rated  at  500 
horse-power  or  less,  their  combined  horse-power  being 
422,924,  or  43.5  per  cent,  of  the  total  for  all  classes.  The 
detailed  statistics  of  alternating  current  are  presented  in 
a  supplementary  table.  Thero  were  441  alternating- 
current  generators  reported,  with  a  total  of  231,924 
horse-power.  These  machines  were  used  by  163  com- 
panies, and  of  this  number  128  reported  that  current 
was  generated  for  sale  for  light  or  power.  Considering 
all  machines  of  this  style,  the  average  horse-power  per 
machine  was  526.  There  were  22  machines  for  each  of 
which  the  indicated  power  was  more  than  2,000  horse- 
power. There  were  219  companies  using  auxiliary  elec- 
trical equipment  of  some  character  and  105  which  op- 
erated substations.  The  auxiliary  equipment  consisted 
of  transformers,  storage  batteries,  boosters,  auxiliary 
generators,  rotaries,  and  electric  motors  used  in  plant  or 
substations  for  miscellaneous  work. 

The  total  kilowatt-hours  and  horse-power  of  current 
for  the  year  and  the  average  per  day  are  shown  for  each 
company,  with  totals  for  each  State  and  the  United 
States.  In  a  few  cases  this  information  was  not  avail- 
able, and  in  others  the  companies  were  not  in  operation 
during  the  entire  year,  so  the  totals  should  not  be  ac- 
cepted as  exact.  It  appears  that  the  power  plants  noted, 
doing  an  electrical  service,  .reported  an  output  for  the 
year  of  2,261,484,397  kilowatt-hours,  or  6,249,910  kilo- 
watt-hours   daily,    this    being   roughly    but   not   exactly 


38  The     Wa  shiny  ton 

equivalent  to  3,018,320.717  horse-power-hours  for  the 
year,  or  8,338,190  horse-power-hours  daily.  Hence  the 
1,204,238  horse-power  of  dynamo  capacity  would  appear 
to  be  employed  on  the  average  as  nearly  as  possible 
seven  hours  dailJ^  which,  all  things  considered,  is  prob- 
ably very  close  to  the  mark. 

The  figures  for  line  construction  showed  21.920.07 
miles  of  single  track  operated  by  electricity,  of  which 
97.18  per  cent.,  or  21,302.57  miles  employed  the  overhead 
trolley.  A  large  proportion  of  this  was  span  wire  con- 
struction. Wooden  poles  very  largely  predominated. 
There  were  24.754.29  miles  of  feeder  wire  construction 
reported,  of  which  90.26  per  cent,  was  overhead.  There 
were  6,546.9  miles  of  duct  ready  for  use,  on  589.3  miles 
of  duct;  but  only  2.41 1.07  miles  of  feeder  wire  was  un- 
derground. The  conduits  comprised  3,905.1  miles  of 
iron  pipe. 

Xo  fewer  than  66.784  cars  of  all  classes  were 
reported.  There  were  60,290  passenger  cars  and 
6,494  cars  used  for  express,  work  or  other 
purposes.  Comparing  the  number  of  passengers 
carried  and  the  passenger-car  mileage  with  the 
number  of  cars,  it  appears  that  each  car  carried  on  the 
average  79,774  passengers  and  traveled  18.001  miles  dur- 
ing the  j'ear,  or  nearly  50  miles  every  day  in  the  year. 
Of  the  passenger  cars,  32.658  were  closed  and  24,259 
open.  Combination  closed  and  open  cars  were  reported 
by  106  companies,  the  total  number  being  3.134,  of  which 
1,203,  or  38.38  per  cent.,  were  used  by  22  companies  in 
California.  Combination  passenger  and  express  cars 
were  used  by  99  companies,  the  number  being  239.  Cars 
used  for  more  than  one  service  were  enumerated  only 
once ;  for  instance,  cars  carrying  passengers  as  well  as 
material  and  mail  were  classified  as  passenger  cars.  The 
use  of  express,  freight  or  mail  cars  was  reported  b}-  206 
companies.  The  1.727  snow  plows  reported  do  not  in- 
clude snow  plow  attachment,  but  only  snow  plow  cars. 
Similarly  the  790  sweepers  included  only  sweeper  cars. 
Cars  used  both  as  sweepers  and  as  snow  plows  were 
counted  only  once,  either  as  plows  or  as  sweepers. 
There  were  50,699  cars  provided  with  electrical  equip- 
ment; and  as  the  roads  operated  either  in  whole  or  in 


E  lectr  ica  I     II  a  n  d  b  oo  k  39 

part  by  electric  power  reported  a  total  of  64,618  cars  of 
all  classes,  the  number  having  equipment  of  this  char- 
acter was  78.46  per  cent,  of  tlic  total. 

Of  the  total  car  mileage,  1.099256,774,  the  passenger 
cars  traveled  1,085,397,802  miles,  or  98.74  per  cent.,  and 
freight,  mail,  or  other  express  cars,  13,858,972,  or  1.26 
per  cent.  In  computing  the  car  mileage  and  the  car 
hours,  where  a  road  operated  one  or  more  trailers,  or,  in 
some  cases,  a  train  of  cars,  the  entire  combination  was 
considered  as  one  car.  The  total,  therefore,  contains  a 
certain  amount  of  train  mileage,  and  allowance  should 
be  made  for  this  fact  in  considering  the  average  fare 
passengers  per  car-mile  and  car-hour.  The  fare  passen- 
gers per  car-mile  for  all  companies  averaged  4.43,  and 
ranged  from  o.oi  for  the  Chicago  General  Electric  Rail- 
way' Company,  of  Chicago.  111.,  to  69.15  for  the  Monon- 
gahela  Incline  Plane  Company,  of  Pittsburg,  Pa.  It 
was  impossible  to  obtain  information  concerning  car- 
hours  from  a  large  percentage  of  the  companies.  How- 
ever, 389  companies  furnished  this  information.  Their 
total  car-hours  for  the  year  amounted  to  65.869.342.  of 
which  passenger  cars  formed  65.403,287.  or  99.29  per 
cent.,  and  freight,  mail,  express  and  other  cars  466,055, 
or  0.71  per  cent.  The  fare  pas.sengers  per  car-hour  for 
the  companies  reporting  both  factors  averaged  33.28. 
No  fewer  than  286  companies  reported  that  they  were 
carrying  mail,  and  the  companies  in  the  aggregate  re- 
ported the  owning  and  operating  of  as  many  as  350 
pleasure  parks. 

As  to  the  lighting  of  the  cars,  there  were  66,784  cars 
of  all  classes,  of  wdiich  62.339  were  lighted,  and  of  these 
55,673  had  electric  lights.  If  the  lights  were  averaged 
at  10  to  the  car.  it  would  represent  nearly  600,000  lamps 
in  daily  service  of  that  nature.  More  than  half  the  cars 
are  reported  as  being  heated,  and  of  these  19,021  or  63.07 
per  cent,  were  warmed  by  electrical  apparatus,  and 
11,138  or  36.93  per  cent,  by  stoves,  hot  water,  etc.  Nor 
is  this  all,  for  the  Census  Office  was  careful  to  inquire  as 
to  the  extent  of  electric  lighting  in  the  shops,  car  barns, 
etc.,  of  the  street  railway  companies,  and  it  appears  that 


Ifi  T  h  e     W  a  s  king  to  n 

no  fewer  than  5,282  arc  lamps  and  235,955  incandescent 
lamps  were  thus  employed. 

By  making  a  separation  of  the  roads  it  was  found 
that  about  300  companies  could  be  considered  as  oper- 
ating interurban  lines.  Their  total  single  track  amount- 
ed to  8,853.53  miles,  and  their  total  earnings  from  op- 
eration for  the  year  to  $41,099,987 ;  total  operating  ex- 
penses were  $26,135,031,  the  net  earnings  being  $14,964,- 
856.  The  single  track  of  these  companies  formed  39 
per  cent,  of  the  total  for  all  companies,  and  their  oper- 
ating earnings  17  per  cent,  of  the  total  earnings  from 
operation.  The  interurban  trafific,  therefore,  formed  in 
1902  only  a  very  small  proportion  of  the  total  electric 
railway  business.  There  were  about  56  companies,  with 
3,212.75  miles  of  single  track,  that  operated  what  may  be 
classed  as  fast  long  distance  interurban  lines.  Each  of 
these  companies  operated  at  least  20  miles  of  road,  the 
average  length  of  single  track  per  company  being  57.37 
miles.  The  maximum  running  speed  outside  city  limits 
was  at  least  25  miles  per  hour.  The  total  operating 
earnings  amounted  to  $13,657,021,  and  the  operating  ex- 
penses $7,924,568,  the  net  earnings  being  $5,732,453. 

While  there  were  67  companies  using  animal  power 
and  259.1  miles  of  track  operated  by  such  power,  the 
greater  proportion  of  the  track  was  owned  by  companies 
which  used  other  motive  power  on  a  portion  of  the  line. 
There  were  only  53  companies  which  used  animal  power 
exclusively,  and  their  single  track  amounted  to  158.12 
miles,  being  an  average  of  about  three  miles  for  each 
company.  It  is  strange  that  the  New  York  City  region, 
in  which  the  most  advanced  electrical  appliances  are  in 
use  on  the  street  railways,  is  also  the  home  of  the  an- 
tiquated horse  car.  Almost  half  of  the  trackage  oper- 
ated by  animal  power  is  located  in  Manhattan,  and  the 
Dry  Dock,  East  Broadway  and  Battery  Railway  is  the 
largest  road  operated  by  a  company  using  animal  power 
exclusively.  With  the  exception  of  New  York,  there 
were  only  six  places  in  which  more  than  five  miles  of 
track  were  operated  by  animal  power  in  1902.  The 
cable,  which  fifteen  years  ago  had  such  bright  prospects, 
is  now  antiquated.     There  are  only  two  street  railways 


Electrical     11  a  n  d  boo  k 


-il 


operated  exclusively  by  cable  power.  From  the  Census 
bulletin  there  appeared  to  be  twelve  roads  of  this  char- 
acter, but  ten  of  them  are  inclined  planes. 

The  street  railways  of  the  country  gave  employment 
to  labor  on  a  large  scale.  The  companies  were  served 
during  1902  by  133,641  wage-earners,  to  whom  they  paid 
$80,770,449  in  wages — a  very  large  proportion  of  their 
total  income  of  $247,000,000.  There  were  also  7,128 
salaried  officials  and  clerks  employed,  to  whom  $7,439,- 
716  was  paid  in  salaries.  It  is  interesting  to  note  the 
wage  scale. 


5.00  and 


Con- 
duct- 


Mo 
tor- 


31,86932,412 


Road  I  I 

and  Engi-  Fire- 
track  neers ;  men. 
men. 


9,926 


1.534 


451 
477 


27         50 

58  8 

899       884 

1,0461   1, 123   1,368 

3.94S!  3,339  4.505 

5,426    5, 481 1  I  280 

17,059  16,665   I  229 

3,124'  4,325!     384 

192I       291       162 

17J  7|         8 

i8l        98        32 


2.344  I  6,753 


49        134 
6           7 

|----- 

2 

3 
I 
2 

3 

5 

39 

104 

89 

295 

187 

274 

115 

169 

79 

40 

10 

94 

5 

9 

4 

'3  ! 


?! 
76 
135 
469 
637 
770 1 
171 ' 
48 


5 

16 

83 

105 

896 

1,062 

1.707 

1,017 

936 

427 

240 

88 
34 


10, 036 


24 

46 
295 

562 

2,  100 
1,223 

1,953 

I,  213 

1,359 

470 

503 
"7 
78 
31 
36 
5 


As  to  the  use  of  the  service  by  the  public,  it  appears 
that  in  the  United  States  in  1890  the  average  number  of 
street  car  rides  per  inhabitant  was  32.  In  1902,  under 
the  electrical  regime,  it  w-as  63,  and  in  the  North  At- 
lantic States  it  had  risen  froin  66  to  124.  The  traffic 
earnings  of  about  $234,000,000,  with  a  population  in 
1900-1  of  76,000.000,  would  make  the  average  e.xpend- 
iture  per  inhabitant  for  street  car  travel  of  just  over  $3 
per  head.  Accidents  were  quite  numerous,  there  being 
1,216  persons  killed  and  47,429  injured,  of  the  killed  265, 
Slid  of  the  injured  26,690  being  passengers.     The  roads 


J^2  T li  e     W aslii  n g  ton 

carried  S.S/O.QS/.S^o  '■passengers"  of  all  kinds,  of  whom 
4,809,554,438  paid  full,  wiiile  the  others  enumerated  had 
evidently  the  benefit  of  free  transfers — the  flat  rate  of 
5  cents,  with  free  transfers  to  other  lines,  being  a  com- 
mon and  universal  practice  in  America. 

The  effect  of  electricity  upon  the  development  of 
street  railway  traffic  has  often  been  referred  to,  but  is 
again  emphasized  in  the  figures  brought  out  bj-  the  1904 
edition  of  "American  Street  Railway  Investments.'' 
This  excellent  compendium  gives  among  other  things  a 
summary  of  the  earnings  of  310  street  railway  companies 
in  the  United  States ;  and  very  interesting  data  are  in- 
cluded. The  number  of  those  reporting  receipts  of  over 
$1,000,000  annually  has  increased  from  38  to  42.  and  all 
of  these  companies  show  an  increase  in  gross  receipts 
with  one  special  exception.  The  average  rate  of  in- 
crease in  the  receipts  in  1903  over  1902  was  in  this  group 
7.1  per  cent.;  in  the  second  group,  including  companies 
over  $500,000.  it  was  10.7  per  cent. ;  in  companies  over 
$100,000  it  was  16.5  per  cent. ;  in  companies  over  $50,00*.) 
the  increase  was  9.5  per  cent.,  and  in  the  fifth  group  of 
companies,  over  $25,000,  it  was  14.4  per  cent.  The  gen- 
eral average  increase  for  1903  over  1902  was  8.5  per 
cent.  This  is  certainh'  a  healthy  rate  of  increase.  The 
figures  of  the  United  States  Census  office  showed  that 
the  gross  receipts  of  all  the  street  railway  companies  for 

1902  were  nearly  $248,000,000.  If  the  rate  of  8^2  per 
cent,  increase  be  applied  to  this,  the  gross  earnings  for 

1903  for  the  street  railwa3's  of  America  would  reach  the 
sum  of  not  far  short  of  $270,000,000.  There  seems  to  be 
no  limit,  in  fact,  to  the  expansibility  of  the  street  rail- 
way industry  under  the  regime  of  electricitj^ :  and  as  the 
years  go  by  it  will  be  very  interesting  to  trace  the  eflfect 
of  electricity  in  increasing  the  traffic  of  the  steam  rail- 
roads to  which  it  is  applied.  It  would  appear,  from 
time  to  time,  that  other  modes  of  traction,  like  the  auto- 
mobile, for  instance,  or  the  bicycle,  might  have  some 
efTect  on  street  railway  traffic ;  and  we  are  not  yet  very 
far  away  from  the  time  when  some  street  railway  man- 
agers thought  they  were  going  to  lose  all  their  income 
because  so  many  people  liad  taken  to  riding  bicycles  to 


Electrical     Handbook  JfS 

and  from  business.  The  figures  of  street  railway  traf- 
fic, in  fact,  certainly  keep  pace  with  the  growth  in  popu- 
lation quite  steadily,  and  appear  to  have  a  further  rate 
of  development  of  their  own,  depending  very  largely 
upon  the  increase  of  facilities.  The  figures  in  New  York 
City  bring  out  sucli  an  idea  and  confirm  it,  especially  as 
soon  as  the  benefits  of  electricity  are  thrown  into  the 
scale.  In  1884  the  street  car  passenger  traffic  of  New 
York  City  was  barely  185,000,000  passengers,  and  in  1894 
it  was  only  a  little  over  245,000,000;  but  it  had  jumped 
at  the  beginning  of  this  year  to  612,000,000.  There  can 
be  no  question  of  the  fact  that  the  extension  of  electrical 
facilities  had  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the  last  enormous 
stride.  Just  at  present  the  rate  seems  to  have  fallen  ofT 
a  little  bit,  but  this  is  due  again  to  the  fact  that  the  ele- 
vated railroads  by  the  adoption  of  electricity  have  once 
more  come  up  to  the  proper  standard  of  efficiency  and 
competition,  so  that  their  figures  of  traffic  which  in  1889 
showed  only  174,000,000  passengers,  or  almost  exactly 
what  they  were  ele\en  years  before  in  1888,  had  jumped 
in  1903,  after  the  adoption  of  electricity,  to  246,000,000. 
Thus,  whereas  on  the  elevated  roads  in  the  period  from 
1893  up  to  1899  there  was  actually  a  steady  decrease  in 
traffic,  since  1900  and  with  the  employment  of  electric 
traction  there  has  been  a  tremendous  rebound,  so  that 
the  increase  on  the  system  in  1904  was  14.51  per  cent. 

The  figures  have  now  been  given  in  general,  as  well  as 
in  some  detail  for  the  five  leading  developments  of  elec- 
tricity in  the  arts  and  industries.  There  are  a  number 
of  other  branches  that  can  hardly  be  brought  to  statisti- 
cal account.  Some  of  them  are  still  nascent,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, the  application  of  electric  traction  on  the  main 
steam  railroads  of  the  country.  This  work  is  referred 
to  in  other  handbooks  of  this  series.  But  there  are  well- 
established  arts  like  that  of  electric  mining.  Statistics 
show  that  there  are  already  3,000  electric  mining  loco- 
motives in  the  United  States  of  America,  while  the  sin- 
gle State  of  Illinois  reported  in  1901  that  in  12  mines 
in  that  commonwealth  over  2.700,000  tons  had  been 
hauled  by  electricity.  Other  mining  development  has 
Ijeen  on  a  scale  of  equal  development,  as  in  the  use  of 


J^j^  The     Washington 

electric  pumps,  fans,  lioists,  drills,  etc. ;  while  latterly 
electric  placer  gold  mining  has  sprung  up  as  an  indus- 
try, over  40  dredges  operated  by  electric  power  being 
now  installed  in  California.  In  fact,  it  is  largely  on 
account  of  electric  mining  that  much  of  the  long  dis- 
tance power  transmission  of  the  Far  West  has  been 
done.  In  fact,  the  longest  transmission  system  in  the 
world,  from  the  Sierras  across  the  State  of  California 
to  San  Francisco  and  the  shores  of  the  Pacific — ^232 — 
has  been  developed  by  the  Standard-Bays  Counties 
Companies  on  the  water  powers  at  first  utilized  in  a 
primitive  way  for  mining  purposes. 

The  use  of  electric  motors  in  mills  and  factories  and 
other  industrial  plants  has  virtually  grown  into  a  vast 
field  of  industry  by  itself.  The  revelations  of  the  twelfth 
United  States  census  were  in  this  respect  little  short  of 
extraordinary.  In  dealing  with  the  manufactures  of  the 
country,  no  fewer  than  512,254  establishments  or  fac- 
tories came  under  consideration.  The  extent  to  which 
hand-power  is  still  resorted  to,  evidencing  the  oppor- 
tunit}'  for  small  electric  motors,  may  be  inferred  from 
the  singular  fact  that  of  these  half-million  establish- 
ments only  169,409  reported  power.  In  other  words,  in 
only  2i2)  per  cent,  of  the  "shops"  in  the  United  States  had 
it  paid  to  install  ordinary  mechanical  power,  or  a  gain 
of  only  5  per  cent,  in  ten  years.  Steam  continued,  of 
course,  to  be  the  great  primary  power  and  had  risen 
rapidly,  being,  as  the  report  shows,  not  less  than  8,742,- 
416  horse-power  in  1900  out  of  a  total  of  11,300,081 
horse-power.  This  is  77.4  per  cent.,  whereas  in  1890  it 
was  only  51.8  per  cent.  Water-power,  on  the  other 
hand,  has  gone  of? ;  for,  although  it  has  risen  in  bulk 
from  1,255,206  horse-power  to  1,727.258,  the  percentage 
Oi;  the  total  in  1900  was  only  15.3  as  compared  with  21.1 
in  1890. 

It  appeared  further  that  the  electric  power  owned  and 
rented  for  manufacturing  work  was  only  about  4  per 
cent,  of  the  total,  the  figures  being  311,016  horse-power 
owned,  in  16,923  motors,  and  183,682  horse-power  rented. 
But  this  showed  a  gain  of  1,897  per  cent,  over  the  figures 
of  1890,  when  the  electric  motor  had  not  fairly  come  in. 


Electrical     Handbook  Jf.5 

Moreover,  the  fact  deserves  note  that,  while  electric 
power  rented  was  183.682  Iiorse-power,  all  other  power 
rented  was  only  137.369  horse-power.  In  the  early  days 
of  the  motor  it  was  proposed  to  rent  out  all  the  motors 
as  a  means  of  introducing  them,  and  the  practice  gained 
considerable  vogue,  but,  as  the  above  statistics  prove, 
people  now  buy  and  own  their  own  motors,  and  the 
companies  are  not  burdened  with  an  investment  it  would 
have  been  extremely  difficult  to  maintain  free  from 
enormous  risk  of  detriment  and  depreciation.  What 
this  would  have  meant  may  be  inferred  from  the  state- 
ment that  in  1900- 1  the  New  York  Edison  Company  re- 
ported 50,634  horse-power  of  motors  connected  to  its 
circuits,  or  thirty  times  as  much  as  in  1890.  At  $75  per 
horse-power,  this  would  imply  an  investment  by  the 
company  of  nearly  four  millions  in  machinery  that  it 
would  have  had  to  watch  over  widely  scattered  territory. 
Obviously  the  plan  of  selling  motors  outright  has  not 
checked  their  adoption,  in  view  of  such  phenomenal  in- 
creases. Just  here  it  may  be  noted  as  further  evidence 
of  extraordinary  growth  in  power  service  that  in  1904 
the  Edison  mains  in  New  York  are  supplying  not  less 
than  85.072  horse-power  to  electric  motors  on  Manhat- 
tan Island.  A  further  illuminating  fact  is  that  in  ^1902 
one  of  the  larger  electric  manufacturing  companies  re- 
ported the  production  of  16.000  stationarj-  power  mo- 
tors, and  an  increase  in  that  year  alone  of  40  per  cent,  in 
electric  motor  drive  equipments. 

From  the  data  above  given  an  idea  may  perhaps  be 
formed  as  to  tlie  range  and  scope  of  the  electrical  arts 
in  America.  A  rough  summarization  of  the  figures  may 
be  given  in  conclusion.  Five  of  the  branches  cited  in- 
clude 394.000  employees  of  all  kinds.  The  amount  of 
capital  in  the  same  branches  reached  $3,500,000,000.  It 
would  not  be  far  out  of  the  way  to  place  the  total  num- 
ber of  persons  emploj^ed  directly  by  electricitj'  in  the 
Unites  of  Am.erica  in  1904  at  500.000,  and  the  capitaliza- 
tion of  all  the  electrical  industries  at  $5,000,000,000. 


m  ^ 


I  JiP 


■*^ 


Electrical    Handbook  A? 


THE  NATIONAL  BUREAU    OF   STANDARDS, 

THE  Bureau  of  Standards  was  organized  July   i, 
1901,  as  one  of  the  bureaus  of  the  Treasury  De- 
partment.    On  July  I,  1903,  it  was  transferred, 
along  with  certain  other  bureaus,  to  the  newly 
established  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor. 

The  functions  of  the  Bureau  of  Standards  are  briefly 
stated  in  the  Act  of  Congress  by  which  it  was  estab- 
lished. The  Bureau  is  to  acquire  and  construct  when 
necessary  copies  of  the  standards  adopted  or  recognized 
by  the  government,  their  multiples  and  subdivisions ;  to 
make  accurate  comparisons  with  these  standards  of  in- 
struments and  standards  employed  in  scientific  investi- 
gations, engineering,  manufacturing,  commerce  and  edu- 
cational institutions;  to  conduct  researches  pertaining  to 
precision  measurements  and  to  determine  the  physical 
constants  and  properties  of  materials.  The  Bureau  is 
also  to  furnish  such  information  concerning  standards, 
methods  of  measurement,  physical  constants  and  the 
properties  of  materials  as  may  be  at  its  disposal,  and  is 
authorized  to  exercise  its  functions  for  the  Government 
of  the  United  States,  for  State  or  municipal  govern- 
ments, for  scientific  societies,  educational  institutions, 
corporations,  firms  or  individuals,  and,  as  a  matter  of 
■international  courtesy,  sometimes  serves  foreign  govern- 
ments. No  fees  are  collected  for  services  performed  for 
the  national  or  State  governments ;  from  others  a  rea- 
sonable fee  is  charged. 

Buildings  and  Site. 

To  carry  out  these  functions  adequately  requires  large, 
well-equipped  and  fully  manned  physical  and  chemical 
laboratories.  To  this  end  Congress  has  appropriated 
$25,000  for  a  site,  $325,000  for  two  buildings,  and  $225,- 
000  for  apparatus  and  equipment.  The  site  lies  in  the 
northwestern  suburbs  of  Washington,  about  three  and 
one-half  miles  from  the  Treasury  and  1,000  feet  from 
Connecticut  Avenue,  just  north  of  Cleveland  Park.     It 


^8  The     Wa  siting  ton 

is  350  feet  above  the  Potomac,  and  is  the  highest  ground 
in  the  vicinitJ^  Complete  freedom  from  the  jarring  of 
street  trafilic  is  assured,  and  magnetic  disturbances  due 
to  the  only  electric  railway  in  that  immediate  region  are 
verj'  slight.  These  buildings  have  been  so  planned  and 
located  that  additional  buildings  may  be  added  as  they 
become  necessary. 

One  building  is  completed  and  occupied  and  the  other 
is  ncaring  completion.  The  larger  of  the  two  buildings, 
wliich  is  called  the  physical  laboratory,  will  provide  for 
the  greater  portion  of  the  experimental  work,  including 
especially  that  part  which  requires  to  be  kept  free  from 
mechanical  and  magnetic  disturbances,  and  to  this  end 
it  will  contain  scarcely  any  machinery.  It  will  also 
contain  the  offices  for  administration,  the  library,  and  a 
well-equipped  chemical  laboratory.  The  mechanical  lab- 
oratory contains  the  mechanical  plant,  instrument  shop 
and  laboratories  for  the  heavier  kinds  of  experimental 
work,  where  considerable  power  or  large  electric  cur- 
rents are  required.  These  two  buildings  are  united  by  a 
spacious  tunnel,  through  which  the  air  ducts  of  the 
heating  and  ventilating  system,  steam,  gas  and  water 
pipes,  and  electric  circuits  are  to  be  carried  from  the 
mechanical  to  the  physical  laboratory. 

Heating:  and  Ventilation  of  the  Buildings. 

The  heating  and  ventilating  of  a  laboratory  is  a  mat- 
ter of  first  importance,  and  has  in  this  case  received 
especial  attention.  In  heating  a  building  by  the  double- 
duct  system  hot  air  from  one  duct  is  mixed  with  cooler, 
tempered  air  from  a  second  duct  in  such  proportion  as 
to  hold  the  temperature  of  the  room  constant,  the  pro- 
portions of  the  hot  and  tempered  air  being  regulated  by 
a  pair  of  dampers,  the  latter  being  automatically  con- 
trolled by  means  of  a  thermostat.  Each  room  of  a 
building,  therefore,  has  its  own  supply  flue,  regulating 
dampers  and  thermostat.  The  latter  may  be  set  at  any 
desired  teni])eraUn-e  within  the  range  of  the  apparatus. 
If  now  in  hot  weather  the  hot-air  duct  of  winter  carries 
air  taken  frdui  out  of  doors,  say  at  85  degrees  F.,  and 
the  tvm])ere(l-air  duct  carries  artificiallv  cooled   air.  sav 


Electrical    Handbook  ^9 

at  60  degrees,  a  mixture  of  the  two  may  give  a  room 
temperature  of  75  degrees  when  the  temperature  would 
otherwise  be  80  degrees  or  higher.  The  thermostat  will 
adjust  q.utomatically  the  proportions  of  cooled  and  un- 
cooled  air,  so  as  to  hold  this  temperature  constant,  thus 
preventing  the  usual  gradual  increase  of  temperature  as 
the  day  progresses.  By  a  readjustment  of  the  thermo- 
stat any  other  constant  temperature  can  be  secured,  pro- 
vided it  is  within  the  range  of  the  system. 

Not  only  does  this  system  make  possible  automatic 
temperature  control  in  summer — a  most  important  end 
in  itself — but  it  also  secures  a  humidity  control.  For  by 
cooling  air  its  moisture  is  partly  removed. 

With  this  system  of  heating  in  winter  and  cooling  in 
summer,  with  automatic  temperature  control  and  excess 
of  moisture  removed  by  refrigeration,  the  double  windows 
of  the  laboratory  may  be  kept  tightly  closed,  and  an  at- 
mosphere favorable  for  experimentation  secured  at  any 
time,  summer  or  winter.  The  closed  doublo  windows 
will  also  effectually  keep  out  dust  and  dirt,  two  of  the 
enemies  of  the  experimentalist.  With  gas,  compressed 
air,  vacuum,  hot  and  cold  water,  ice  water  and  distilled 
water  always  at  hand ;  with  cold  brine,  carbon  dioxide 
and  liquid  air  always  available  for  low  temperatures,  and 
gas  and  electric  furnaces  available  for  high  tempera- 
tures ;  with  direct  electric  currents,  at  potentials  up  to 
10,000  volts  and  currents  up  to  10,000  amperes,  and  still 
higher  alternating  voltages  and  larger  alternating  cur- 
rents always  available,  it  is  believed  that  the  facilities 
and  appliances  necessary  for  carrying  on  a  wide  range 
of  experiments  under  favorable  conditions  will  be  fairly 
well  realized. 

The  Mechanical    Laboratory. 

The  mechanical  laboratory  is  built  of  dark  red  brici-c, 
trimmed  with  Indiana  limestone.  The  building  is  135 
feet  long  east  and  west,  48  feet  wide  at  the  ends,  and  58 
feet  in  the  central  portion.  It  stands  on  ground  sloping 
toward  the  north,  so  that  the  basement  story  is  wholly 
above  ground  on  the  north,  but  is  only  a  few  feet  above 
ground  on  the  south.     An  extension  of  the  basement. 


Electrical    Handbook  51 

wholly  below  the  ground  level  on  the  south,  is  20  feet 
wide  and  projects  25  feet  east  and  west  bej-ond  the  main 
portion  of  the  building.  This  increases  the  floor  area  of 
the  basement  by  50  per  cent.,  affording  ample  accom- 
modation for  the  mechanical  plant  on  this  floor. 

The  boiler  room  is  42  feet  square  and  19  feet  high, 
the  floor  being  5  feet  below  the  engine  room  floor,  and, 
like  the  engine  and  dynamo  room,  it  is  lined  with  white 
enameled  brick.  Two  water-tube  boilers,  of  125  horse- 
power each,  have  been  installed,  and  space  has  been  re- 
served for  two  others,  giving  a  final  capacity  of  500 
horse-power. 

The  Engine  and  Dynamo  Room. 

The  engine  and  dynamo  room  is  87  feet  long  and  has 
an  average  width  of  24  feet.  A  120  horse-power  tandem 
compound  engine  drives  two  direct-connected  dynamos 
of  ,^7.5  kilowatts  each,  giving  300  amperes  at  125  volts, 
and  a  50  horse-power  simple  high-speed  engine  drives 
two  direct-connected  dj-namos  of  15  kilowatts  each,  giv- 
ing 120  amperes  at  125  volts.  One-half  of  the  room  is 
occupied  by  a  number  of  alternating  current  dynamos 
directly  driven  by  electric  motors.  These  furnish  single 
phase  and  polyphase  current  for  experimental  purposes. 
There  are  machines  with  smooth-core  armatures  and 
specially  shaped  pole  pieces  giving  sine  waves,  others 
giving  distorted  waves,  and  another,  to  give  several 
harmonic  components  which  may  be  combined  in  various 
ways  to  give  different  wave  forms,  is  now  in  process  of 
construction.  On  the  south  side  of  the  engine  room  a 
switchboard  carries  the  controlling  apparatus  for  the 
dynamos  and  motors,  for  several  storage  batteries,  and 
for  distributing  current  to  the  various  laboratory  rooms 
of  both  buildings.  Live  and  exhaust  steam  pipes,  water 
pipes,  air  ducts,  etc..  are  located  in  the  sub-basement 
under  the  engine  room  floor. 

The  Refrigerating  Room. 

The  refrigerating  room  is  41  by  18  feet,  and  contains 
an  ammonia  refrigerating  machine  having  a  refrig- 
erating capacity  equivalent  to  the  melting  of  30  tons  of 


52  The     W a  shiny  ton 

ice  in  24  hours.  Liquid  air  and  liquid  hydrogen  ma- 
chines will  be  added  in  the  near  future.  A  large  tank 
filled  with  calcium  chloride  brine  is  located  in  the  sub- 
basement  just  under  the  refrigerating  machine,  and  en- 
ables "cold"  to  be  stored  equivalent  to  ten  tons  of  ice. 
This  may  be  used  at  night  or  to  supplement  the  ma- 
chine in  the  hottest  part  of  the  day  when  desired. 

The  air-cooling  chamber  contains  a  set  of  coils  of 
galvanized  iron  pipe  through  wdiich  cold  brine  is  pump- 
ed, and  the  air  to  be  cooled  is  blown  over  these  coils. 
On  one  side  of  this  room  space  is  reserved  for  placing 
apparatus  which  it  is  desired  to  cool  or  to  perform  an 
experiment  at  the  low  temperature  of  this  room. 

The  storage  battery  room  is  61  feet  long,  and  contains 
several  batteries,  which  furnish  current  to  motors  driv- 
ing alternators,  ventilating  fans,  the  machines  of  the 
instrument  shop,  lights  in  the  buildings  when  the  en- 
gines are  not  running,  and  current  for  experimental 
purposes. 

The  Instrument  Shop. 

The  large  room  on  the  tirst  floor  just  above  the  boiler 
room  is  the  instrument  shop.  This  is  an  important 
feature  of  any  physical  laboratory  where  research  is  car- 
ried on.  Six  lathes  of  different  sizes  and  styles,  a  uni- 
versal milling  machine,  planer,  shaper.  drill  press, 
grinder,  circular  saw  and  other  machines  have  been  in- 
stalled, and  a  complete  equipment  of  hand  tools  pro- 
vided. The  machines  are  directly  driven  by  electric 
motors,  so  that  no  overhead  shafting  is  used.  A  stock 
room  adjoins  the  instrument  shop. 

Direct  and  Alternating  Current  Testing  Laboratories. 

The  heavy  current  testing  laboratory  is  provided  with 
four  large  storage  cells,  which,  when  joined  in  parallel, 
will  give  a  current  of  10,000  amperes  at  the  one-hour 
rate  of  discharge.  They  will  be  charged  in  series  and 
may  be  discharged  singly  or  together  in  any  combina- 
tion. Ammeters,  shunts  and  recording  wattmeters  for 
heavy  current  will  be  tested  here.  The  adjacent  room, 
which  is  directly  over  the  dynamo  room,  is  used  for 
testing   alternating-current   instruments.     This    includes 


Electrical     H and  b  o  o  I:  53 

an  examination  of  tlicir  hcliavior  on  different  loads,  at 
different  temperatures,  witli  currents  of  different  fre- 
quencies, different  power  factors,  and  different,  wave 
shapes.  Complete  specifications  of  these  factors  are  sup- 
plied when  desired  with  the  results  of  the  test. 

On  the  second  Hoor  is  another  electrical  laboratorj-  for 
alternating  and  direct-current  experiments,  study  of 
transformers,  condensers  and  cables  under  relatively 
high  electromotive  forces.  The  adjacent  room  will  con- 
tain transformers  for  obtaining  still  higher  alternating 
voltages  for  testing  insulation  resistances ;  and  instru- 
ments for  measuring  alternating  voltages  up  to  50,000 
volts  or  higher  will  be  tested  here.  A  storage  battery 
of  small  cells,  giving  potentials  up  to  lo.ooo  volts  and 
currents  up  to  i  ampere  at  this  voltage  is  to  be  in- 
stalled. Two  rooms  on  this  floor  are  used  for  the 
photometric  study  and  calibration  of  incandescent  lamps, 
gas  lamps,  Nernst  lamps,  etc.  Immediately  above,  on 
the  attic  floor,  is  a  large  room  for  arc-lamp  photometry. 
The  hydraulic  laboratory  extends  through  the  second 
and  attic  stories,  giving  a  maximum  height  of  over  25 
feet.  It  is  used  for  testing  gas  and  water  meters,  pres- 
sure gauges,  anemometers,  steam  indicator  springs,  etc. 
Provision  has  been  made  for  a  mercury  column  in  the 
elevator  shaft,  so  that  it  can  be  observed  from  the  ele- 
vator platform. 

The  Physical  Laboratory. 

The  physical  Iniilding,  like  tlie  mechanical  building,  is 
built  of  dark  red  brick  and  Indiana  limestone,  the  first 
story  being  entirely  of  stone  and  the  upper  stories  trim- 
med with  stone.  The  building  is  172  feet  long,  55  feet 
wide,  and  four  stories  high,  besides  a  basement  and 
attic.  It  faces  the  south,  overlooking  the  city  of  Wash- 
ington. 

The  corridor  extends  the  entire  length  of  the  lirst 
floor;  the  exterior  of  the  building  is  so  designed  that  if 
in  the  future  additional  buildings  should  be  needed  they 
may  be  placed  one  on  the  east  and  the  other  on  the  west 
of  this  building  and  connected  to  it  by  an  arcade  open- 
ing into  the  corridor  of  the  first  floor.    The  basement  is 


City  Postoffice. 


A'  I  e  c  t  r  i  c  a  I    H  an  d  b  o  o  1:  J  J 

excavated  under  the  central  portion  of  the  building  and 
under  the  corridor,  the  four  large  rooms  at  either  end 
of  the  ground  floor  having  concrete  floors,  upon  which 
piers  may  be  built  as  they  are  found  necessary.  In  one 
of  the  basement  rooms  a  storage  battery  will  be  in- 
stalled; the  others  will  be  used  as  constant-temperature 
rooms  for  experimental  purposes  whenever  they  are 
needed.  Only  certain  special  kinds  of  work  will  require 
to  be  conducted  in  these  basement  rooms,  as  all  rooms 
on  the  first  and  second  floors  will  be  practically  con- 
stant-temperature rooms,  having  heavy  walls  and  dou- 
ble windows  and  automatic  temperature  regulation. 

The  Pipe  and  Wire  Shafts. 

Between  rooms  i  and  2,  next  to  the  outer  wall,  is  a 
vertical  shaft  three  feet  square,  extending  from  the 
basement  to  the  attic.  In  corresponding  positions  in  the 
other  three  ciuarters  of  the  building  are  three  similar 
shafts.  All  pipes  for  distributing  gas,  compressed  air, 
and  vacuum,  hot  and  cold  water,  ice  water,  distilled 
water,  cold  brine,  and  all  the  electric  wiring  for  lighting 
and  experimental  purposes  are  carried  up  through  these 
shafts.  A  door  opens  into  each  shaft  on  each  floor, 
making  everything"  accessible  without  the  main  pipes  and 
wires  being  exposed  in  the  laboratories.  On  each  floor 
branches  are  brought  out  from  the  water  pipes  to  the 
sinks,  from  the  air  and  gas  pipes  to  work  tables,  and 
from  the  distributing  wires  in  the  shaft  to  a  small 
switchboard,  there  being  one  such  switchboard  for  each 
suite  of  two  or  three  rooms  in  each  quarter  of  the 
building.  The  wires  joined  to  these  local  switchboards 
run  to  a  main  switchboard  near  the  north  door  of  the 
first  floor,  and  thence  trunk  lines  run  through  the  tun- 
nel to  the  distributing  switchboard  of  the  dynamo  room. 
Thus,  through  these  two  main  switchboards  and  a  local 
laboratory  board,  any  circuit  in  any  laboratory  room 
may  be  connected  to  any  other  circuit  in  any  other  lab- 
oratory room  or  to  any  battery  or  generator  in  the 
mechanical  building.  The  storage  battery  in  the  base- 
ment will  be  so  connected  to  the  main  switchboard  that 
any  number  of  cells  from  one  to  the  total  number  may 


56  The     W  a  .S'  A  i  n  (j  t  o  n 

be  joined  to  any  laboratory  circuit,  and  an  auto-trans- 
former will  similarly  give  any  alternating  voltage  re- 
quired. Alternating  currents  of  different  phases  and 
frequencies  maj-  be  had  at  any  place  by  connecting  to 
the  proper  machine  in  the  dj'namo  room. 
The  Laboratory  Rooms. 

Rooms  I  and  2  will  be  used  as  research  laboratories 
and  for  precise  measurements  in  mass,  length  and  ca- 
pacity. Rooms  21,  22  and  34  will  be  used  for  testing 
weights  and  measures.  Rooms  11,  12  and  14  will  be 
used  for  research  laboratories  in  connection  with  vari- 
ous methods  of  making  precise  mass,  length  and  capac- 
ity measurements,  including  optical  methods  and  optical 
instruments.  Rooms  31  and  2)2.  will  be  used  as  general 
research  laboratories,  especially  for  optical  work.  Room 
23  will  be  used  as  a  laboratory  for  testing  watches, 
chronometers,  clocks,  tuning  forks,  and  other  timepieces. 

Rooms  8  and  9  will  be  used  for  research  in  heat  and 
the  testing  of  thermometers  and  pyrometers  for  meas- 
uring temperatures  outside  the  range  of  mercury  ther- 
mometers. 

Rooms  16,  17,  18  and  19  will  be  used  for  investigation 
and  the  testing  of  resistance  standards,  resistance  boxes 
and  shunts;  standard  cells,  and  instruments  used  in 
measuring  resistance  and  electromotive  forces. 

Rooms  28  and  29  are  to  be  occupied  by  the  magnetic 
laboratory,  and  rooms  36,  38  and  39  are  to  be  employed 
for  the  investigation  and  testing  of  standards  of  ca- 
pacity and  inductance  and  for  studying  problems  in 
which  capacity  and  inductance  are  involved. 
Offices  and  Library. 

The  third  floor  provides  space  at  one  end  for  a  lec- 
ture room,  and  two  rooms  for  apparatus  and  supplies; 
at  the  other  end  for  the  library  and  reading  room,  and 
in  the  central  portion  for  the  offices  of  administration. 
These  rooms  were  placed  on  the  third  floor  in  order 
to  devote  the  two  lower  floors  solely  to  laboratory  pur- 
poses. 

Room  60.  on  the  fourth  floor,  will  accommodate  the 
work    in    mercurial    thermometers,    including   ordinary. 


Electrical    H  a  n  d  h  o  o  k  57 

precision  and  clinical  thermometers.  Rooms  69  and  79, 
at  the  east  end  of  this  floor,  will  be  used  temporarily  as 
lunch  rooms.  The  other  rooms  of  this  floor  are  being 
fitted  up  as  a  chemical  laboratory,  for  work  in  analytical, 
physical  and  electro-chemistrj*. 

On  the  fifth,  or  attic  floor,  are  the  photographic  rooms 
and  storage  rooms. 

Organization  of  the  Work  of  the  Bureau. 

While  the  work  of  planning  and  building  laboratories 
and  designing  and  constructing  the  somewhat  extensive 
and  in  many  respects  unique  equipment  of  the  same  has 
been  going  on,  the  Bureau  has  been  effecting  its  organi- 
zation and  developing  its  work  in  temporary  quarters. 
When  the  Bureau  of  Standards  was  organized  it  super- 
seded the  office  of  Standard  Weights  and  Measures  and 
acquired  its  equipment ;  the  old  offices  in  the  Coast  and 
Geodetic  Survey-  building  were  retained,  and  b\-  the 
courtesy  of  the  superintendent  of  the  Coast  and  Geo- 
detic Survey  several  additional  rooms  provided  in  the 
adjoining  building.  A  year  later  a  neighboring  resi- 
dence was  rented  and  converted  into  a  temporary  lab- 
oratory and  instrument  shop. 

In  these  temporary  quarters  the  Bureau  has  not  only 
gathered  together  a  considerable  equipment  of  appa- 
ratus and  done  a  great  deal  of  preliminary  work,  but  it 
has  done  some  testing  for  the  government  and  the  pub- 
lic and  not  a  little  research.  The  quantity  of  testing 
done  has  been  limited  partly  by  an  insufficient  force, 
partly  by  the  incomplete  equipment  of  apparatus,  and 
partly  by  lack  of  space.  The  work  of  testing,  however, 
has  been  rapidh-  increasing  during  the  past  year. 

The  Personnel. 

The  act  establishing  the  Bureau  provided  for  fourteen 
positions  at  an  aggregate  salary  of  $27,140.  The  next 
year  (1902-3)  the  number  was  increased  to  twenty-four 
at  an  aggregate  salary  of  $36,060.  The  third  year 
(1903-4)  the  number  was  increased  to  fifty-eight,  with 
an  aggregate  salary  of  $74,700.  For  the  present  fiscal 
3ear    there   are    altogether   in   the    Bureau    seventy-one 


Electrical     Handbook  59 

positions,   with   an   aggregate   salarj-   of  $85,780.     These 

positions  are  as  follows  : 

One  director,  one  physicist,  one  chemist 3 

Four  associate  phjsicists,  one  associate  chetnist, 
seven  assistant   physicists,   one   assistant  chemist..    13 

Fifteen  lahoratory  assistants,  two  aids,  one  libra- 
rian,   one   computer,    one   draftsman 20 

One  secretary,  six  clerks,  two  messengers,  one  store- 
keeper, one  messenger  boy 11 

Five  mechanicians,  two  woodworkers,  five  appren- 
tices, two  laborers 14 

One  engineer,  two  assistant  engineers,  one  elec- 
trician, two  firemen,  two  watchmen,  one  janitor, 
one   charwoman 10 

71 
Appointment  through  the  Civil  Service  Commission. 

All  positions  in  the  Bureau  are  filled  by  civil  service  ex- 
aminations, in  many  cases  as  the  result  of  special  exami- 
nations. An  erroneous  idea  is  more  or  less  prevalent  that 
even  scientific  appointments  in  the  government  are  made 
on  the  basis  of  personal  or  political  influence.  Nothing 
could  be  further  from  the  fact.  The  officers  of  the  Bu- 
reau have  in  every  case  striven  to  select  the  best  man 
that  was  available  for  any  given  position.  These  positions 
are  permanent,  the  civil  service  regulations  affording  am- 
ple protection  against  loss  of  position  without  sufficient 
cause.  Thus,  while  the  interests  of  the  government  are 
protected  on  the  one  hand,  the  interests  of  the  employees 
of  the  government  are  guarded  on  the  other. 

Three  Divisions  of  the  Bureau — Division  1. 

For  convenience  of  administration  the  Bureau  has 
been  divided  into  three  divisions.  Division  I  is  under 
the  personal  charge  of  the  director.  Professor  S.  W. 
Stratton ;  Division  II  is  under  the  charge  of  the  physi- 
cist, Professor  E.  B.  Rosa,  and  Division  III  is  under  the 
charge  of  the  chemist,  Professor  W.  A.  Noyes. 
Division  I  comprises  six  sections,  as  follows : 
I.  Weights  and  Measures,  under  the  charge  of  Mr. 
L.    A.    Fischer    (Columbian   University),    who   was   for 


so  Tlte     Washington 

many  years  connected  with  the  office  of  Standard 
Weights  and  Measures.  He  is  assisted  by  L.  G.  Hoxton 
(University  of  Virginia),  R.  Y.  Ferner  (University  of 
Wisconsin),  N.  S.  Osborne  (Michigan  School  of -Mines), 
L.  L.  Smith,  and  G.  W.  Eastman  (M.  I.  T.). 

2.  Heat  and  Thermometry,  under  the  charge  of  Dr. 
C.  W.  Waidner  (Johns  Hopkins  University),  assisted 
by  Dr.  G.  K.  Burgess  (M.  I.  T.  and  University  of  Paris) 
and  Mr.  H.  C.  Dickinson  (Williams  and  Clark  Univer- 
sity). 

3.  Light  and  Optical  Instruments,  under  the  personal 
charge  of  Professor  Stratton,  assisted  by  Dr.  P.  G. 
Nutting  (University  of  California  and  Cornell),  Mr.  F. 
J.  Bates  (University  of  Nebraska),  and  Mr.  B.  J. 
Spencer. 

4.  Engineering  Instruments,  under  the  charge  of  ^Ir. 
A.  S.  Merrill  (M.  I.  T.). 

5.  Tlie  Office,  under  the  charge  of  the  secretary,  Mr. 
Henry  D.  Hubbard  (University  of  Chicago),  assisted  b)' 
Mr.  D.  E.  Douty  (Clark  University),  librarian,  six 
■clerks  and  two  messengers. 

6.  The  Instrument  Shop,  with  Mr.  Oscar  G.  Lange, 
chief  mechanician,  four  other  mechanicians  and  two 
apprentices,  and  the  woodworking  shop,  with  two  wood- 
workers. 

Division  II. 

Division  H  comprises  six  sections,  as  follows: 

1.  Resistance  and  Electromotive  Force,  under  the 
charge  of  Dr.  F.  A.  Wolff  (Johns  Hopkins  University), 
assisted  by  Dr.  G.  W.  Middlekauf  (Johns  Hopkins 
University )  and  ^ir.  C.  R.  Thurman  (University  of 
Virginia ). 

2.  Magnetism  and  Absolute  Measurement  of  Current, 
under  the  charge  of  Dr.  K.  E.  Guthe  (University  of 
Marburg,  University  of  Michigan),  assisted  by  Mr.  C. 
M.  Jansky  (University  of  Michigan). 

3.  Inductance  and  Capacity,  under  the  personal  charge 
of  Professor  Rosa,  assisted  by  Dr.  N.  E.  Dorsey  (Johns 
Hopkins  University)  and  Mr.  F.  W.  Grover  (M.  I.  T. 
and  Wesleyan). 


Electrical     Handbook  Ot 

4.  Electrical  Measuring  Insirnmcnts,  also  under  the 
personal  charge  of  Professor  Rosa,  assisted  by  Dr.  M. 
G.  Lloyd  (University  of  Pennsylvania),  H.  B.  Brooks 
(Ohio  State  University),  C.  E.  Reid  (Purdue),  and 
F.  S.  Durst  on  (VVesleyan). 

5.  Photometry,  under  the  charge  of  Mr.  E.  P.  Hyde 
(Johns  Hopkins  University),  assisted  by  Mr.  F.  E. 
Cady   (M.  I.  T.). 

6.  Engineering  Plant,  under  tlie  charge  of  the  engi- 
neer. Mr.  C.  F.  Sponsler  (Pennsylvania  State  College). 

Division  Mi. 

Division  HI  comprises  the  chemical  work  of  the  Bu- 
reau. At  present  the  personnel  of  this  division  includes, 
besides  the  chemist,  only  the  associate  chemist.  Dr.  H. 
N.  Stokes  (Johns  Hopkins  University)  and  the  assistant 
chemist.  Dr.  Waters  (Jolms  Hopkins  University).  This 
work  is  relatively  late  in  its  organization,  for  the  reason 
that  the  Bureau  has  had  no  place  in  which  to  develop  a 
chemical  laboratory.  The  new  buildings  are  now  ready 
and  a  complete  chemical  laboratory  will  shortly  be  in- 
stalled in  one  of  them. 

Tlie  Visiting  Committee. 

The  visiting  committee  is  constituted  as  follows:  Dr. 
Ira  Remsen,  President  of  Johns  Hopkins  University; 
Dr.  Henry  S.  Pritchett,  President  of  Massachusetts  In- 
stitute of  Technology;  Professor  Edward  L.  Nichols, 
Cornell  University;  Professor  Elihu  Thomson,  Lynn, 
Massachusetts ;  Mr.  Albert  Ladd  Colby,  Metallurgical 
Engineer,  New  York. 

These  gentlemen  meet  in  Washington  at  least  once 
each  year,  and,  after  receiving  a  report  from  the  di- 
rector, make  a  thorough  examination  of  the  work  of  the 
Bureau.  On  the  basis  of  this  examination  they  present 
a  report  to  the  Secretary  of  Commerce  and  Labor,  mak- 
ing such  recommendations  as  they  think  proper.  This 
committee  has  already  been  of  much  service  to  the 
Bureau,  and  it  is  believed  that  it  will  also  serve  a  val- 
uable purpose  as  a  medium  of  communication  between 
the  scientific  public  and  the  Bureau. 


E  I  e  ct  r  I  c  a  i     II  a  a  dh  o  o  k  OS 

Publications. 

TIic  piihlioatioiis  of  the  Ilurcau  consist  of  (i)  the 
Director's  Animal  Report  to  the  Secretary  of  Com- 
merce and  Labor;  (2)  the  Bulletin,  containing  papers 
by  members  of  the  Bureau,  including  scientific  investi- 
gations and  descriptions  of  methods  of  testing;  (3) 
Circulars  of  Information,  containing  announcements  re- 
garding testing,  schedules  of  fees,  and  special  tables  and 
articles  of  general   interest. 

The  5cientific  Work— Division  I,  Section  I. 

The  scientific  work  and  testing  which  the  Bureau  is 
doing  at  present  or  for  which  preparations  are  in  prog- 
ress may  now  be  briefly  stated  by  divisions  and  sections 
under  which  the  work  is  subdivided. 

Weights  ami  Mcasitrrs.  including  the  determination 
of  lengths,  masses  and  volumes. 

The  Bureau  possesses  at  the  present  time  two  iridio- 
platinum  copies  of  the  international  meter,  to  which  all 
lengths  are  referred,  and  the  apparatus  for  comparing 
other  bars  with  them. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  in  1893  Congress  adopted 
the  international  meter  as  the  fundamental  unit  of 
length,  continuing  the  ratio  of  the  yard  to  the  meter  as 
36  to  39.37.  At  the  same  time  the  international  kilo- 
gram was  adopted  as  the  fundamental  unit  of  mass. 
Thus  the  old  standard  yard  of  1840  and  the  Troy  pound 
of  the  mint  of  1827  were  superseded,  and  hence  all 
measures  of  length  and  mass  in  either  metric  or  Eng- 
lish system  are  now  referred  to  the  international  meter 
and  kilogram. 

The  Bureau  is  at  present  prepared  to  determine  the 
length  of  any  standard  from  i  decimeter  to  50  meters, 
and  also  to  calibrate  the  subdivisions  of  such  standards 
and  to  determine  the  coefficient  of  expansion  of  the 
same  for  ordinary  ranges  of  temperature.  The  Bureau 
is  also  prepared  at  the  present  time  to  compare  base- 
measuring  apparatus  and  steel  tapes. 

The  tunnel  connecting  the  physical  and  mechanical 
laboratories  will  be  fitted  out  with  facilities  for  com- 
paring this  kind  of  apparatus.     This  tunnel  is   170  feet 


64.  The     Washington 

long,  7  feet  wide,  and  8  feet  high,  and  facilities  will  be 
provided  for  comparing  tapes  up  to  50  meters  in  length 
and  to  lay  out  a  base  of  the  same  length  with  an  error 
not  greater  than  one  part  in  two  or  three  million,  over 
which  base-measuring  apparatus  may  be  tested.  Means 
will  also  be  provided  for  raising  the  temperature  to, 
say,  40  degrees  C,  and  lowering  to  10  degrees  C,  for 
the  determination  of  temperature  coefiRcients  of  appa- 
ratus submitted. 

The  Bureau  possesses  two  iridio-platinum  copies  of 
the  international  kilogram  and  also  the  necessary  work- 
ing standards  to  verify  masses  from  o.i  milligram  to 
20  kilograms.  The  balances  now  on  hand  include  a 
number  of  the  best  American  and  European  makes. 

Capacity  measures  from  i  milliliter  to  40  liters  may 
be  standardized. 

The  determination  of  the  density  of  solids  and  of 
liquids  is  a  part  of  the  work  of  this  section  as  well  as 
the  testing  of  aneroid  barometers. 

The  Bureau  has  been  called  upon  to  advise  the  offi- 
cers of  state  and  city  sealers  of  weights  and  measures 
regarding  the  proper  equipment  of  those  officers  and 
the  methods  to  be  pursued  in  performing  their  func- 
tions. 

Division  I,  Section  2. 

Thcniio)iictry  and  Pyromctry.  Facilities  have  now 
been  provided  for  the  testing  of  mercurial 
thermometers  in  the  interval  - — 30  degrees  C.  to  -|-55o 
degrees  C.  The  testing  of  toluene,  petroleum-ether  and 
pentane  thermometers,  and  copper-constantan  thermo- 
couples for  low  temperature  w^ork,  will  be  undertaken 
in  the  near  future,  the  range  extending  down  to  about 
— 200  degrees  C. 

The  standard  scale  of  temperature  adopted  by  this 
Bureau  for  work  in  the  interval  — 30  degrees  to  -|-ioo 
degrees  C.  is  the  scale  of  the  hydrogen  gas  thermometer. 

As  primary  standards  the  Bureau  now  has  fifteen 
Tonnelot  and  Baudin  tliermometers  that  have  been 
carefully  studied  at  the  Internatitmal  Bureau  and  also 
intercompared  here. 


Eltitrical     Hand  h  o  o  /•  OJ 

As  primary  standards  in  the  interval  loo  to  (>CK)  de- 
grees C.  the  Bureau  possesses  some  specially  designed 
platinum  resistance  thermometers,  both  of  the  compen- 
sated and  potential  lead  type,  together  with  resistance 
bridges  and  other  apparatus  designed  to  afford  the 
highest  accuracy  and  convenience  in  working. 

As  secondary  and  working  standards  in  the  interval 
100  degrees  C.  to  550  degrees  C,  the  Bureau  has  a  num- 
ber of  mercury  thermometers  constructed  of  French 
hard  glass  and  of  Jena  borosilicate  (59'")  glass.  Those 
intended  for  work  above  300  degrees  C.  have  the  space 
above  the  mercury  t'llled  with  dry  X  or  CO.,  gas  under 
pressure. 

In  the  interval  o  degrees  C.  to  — 200  degrees  C.  the 
standard  scale  of  temperature  is  again  that  of  the 
hydrogen  gas  thermometer,  and  here  also  the  platinum 
resistance  thermometer  serves  to  define  the  scale.  A,^ 
secondary  and  working  standards  in  this  interval  the 
Bureau  has  a  number  of  toluene  thermometers  and 
copper-constantan  thermo-couples ;  and  in  addition  some 
petroleum-ether  and  pentane  thermometers  for  use  as 
low  as  — 180  degrees  C. 

The  scope  of  the  testing  work  in  this  held,  which  is 
rapidly  increasing,  is  somewhat  varied.  It  includes  the 
certification  of  precision  thermometers  to  be  used  in 
scientific  work,  the  certification  of  standards  used  by 
makers  of  thermometers,  of  thermometers  used  in  im- 
portant engineering  tests,  and  of  special  tj-pes  of  me- 
chanical thermometers  used  in  industrial  operations. 
The  testing  of  clinical  thermometers  forms  an  important 
part  of  the  work  of  this  section.  Special  apparatus  ha  . 
been  designed  and  constructed  to  enable  this  work  t  • 
be  carried  on  with  the  greatest  rapidity  and  precisio  -. 

Special  facilities  have  been  provided  for  high  tem- 
perature testing,  such  as  the  standardization  and  testir..r 
of  nearly  all  kinds  of  high  temperature  measuring  i  - 
struments,  including  thermo-couples,  platinum  resistan:.' 
thermometers,  expansion  and  optical  pyrometers ;  t"  t- 
determination  of  the  melting  points  of  metals  and  al- 
loys; the  determination  of  specific  heats  and  coefficie  i:s 


66  Tli  e     W as  h  I  n g  to n 

of  expansion  at  high  temperatures,  and  the  determina- 
tion of  the  calorific  value  of  fuels. 

For  this  purpose  the  laboratory  has  been  equipped 
with  gas  blast  furnaces :  electric  furnaces  which  will 
maintain  for  hours  temperatures  as  high  as  1400 
or  1,500  degrees  C,  constant  to  within  a  few  de- 
grees ;  electrically  heated  black  bodies ;  and  the  neces- 
sary accessory  apparatus,  such  as  potentiometers,  spe- 
cial resistance  bridges,  recording  pyrometers,  etc. 

As  primary  standards  for  work  in  the  interval  600 
degrees  C.  to  J, 600  degrees  C,  thermo-couples  obtained 
from  various  sources  are  used.  These  couples  are  re- 
ferred to  the  scale  of  the  nitrogen  gas  thermometer  by 
measurement  of  their  electro-motive  force  at  known 
temperatures,  viz.,  the  melting  or  freezing  points  of 
some  of  the  metals. 

The  high  temperature  scale  used  by  this  Bureau  is 
based  on  the  melting  and  freezing  points  of  the  metal? 
as  determined  by  Holborn  and  Day,  and  is  a  reproduc- 
tion of  the  high  temperature  scale  used  by  the  Physi- 
kalisch-Technische  Reichsanstalt. 

Division  I— Section  3. 

Light  and  Optical  Instruments. — The  work  of  this 
section  has  recently  been  inaugurated,  but  it  cannot 
be  fully  developed  until  the  Physical  Building  is  oc- 
cupied. 

Investigations  on  electrical  discharges  in  gases,  to  de- 
termine among  other  things  the  conditions  necessary  for 
producing  a  given  spectrum  by  such  a  light  source,  and 
a  careful  study  of  polariscopic  measurements,  with  spe- 
cial reference  to  the  accurate  determination  of  the  per- 
centage of  pure  sugar  in  a  sample,  have  been  carried  on 
during  the  past  year.  The  Bureau  has  also  undertaken, 
at  the  request  of  the  Treasury  Department,  to  super- 
vise the  work  of  polariscopic  analysis  of  sugar  in  all 
the  custom  houses  of  the  country. 

Division  I— Section  4. 

Engineering  Instruments. — The  work  now  being 
done     in     this     section     includes     the     testing     of     gas 


Electrical     Handbook  67 

meters,  water  meters,  pressure  gauges,  speed  indicators, 
cement  testing,  and  testing  the  strength  of  materials, 
using  for  the  latter  purpose  a  100,000-pound  testing 
machine.  This  work  was  begun  comparatively  recently-, 
but  is  progressing  rapidly.  The  range  of  the  work  will 
be  extended  beyond  that  indicated  above  as  fast  as 
possible. 

Division  II— Section  1. 

Resistance  and  lilcctroiitofifc  Force. — In  addition 
to  standard  resistances  and  standard  cells,  this 
laboratory  also  tests  precision  resistance  boxes. 
Wheatstone  bridges,  potentiometers,  precision  shunts, 
etc.  Specific  resistances,  temperature  coefficients  and 
thermo-electric  properties  of  materials  are  also  deter- 
mined. A  considerable  part  of  the  work  of  this  section 
consists  in  the  verification  of  apparatus  of  this  kind  for 
the  other  sections  of  the  Bureau. 

For  the  present  all  resistance  measurements  of  the 
Bureau  are  referred  to  the  mean  of  a  number  of  i-ohm 
manganin  standards,  which  are  reverified  from  time  to 
time  at  the  Physikalisch-Technische  Reichanstalt.  and 
are  therefore  known  in  terms  of  the  primary  mercurial 
standards  of  that  institution. 

The  construction  of  secondary  mercurial  standards, 
which  after  suitable  aging  change  less  than  wire  stand- 
ards, has  been  begun  and  in  time  will  be  of  service  in 
fixing  with  the  greatest  possilile  accuracy  the  value  of 
the  i-ohm  working  standards.  It  is  intended  as  soon  as 
possible  to  construct  a  number  of  primary  mercurial  re- 
sistance standards. 

The  set  of  manganin  resistance  standards  of  the  Bu- 
reau consists  of  ten  i-ohm  coils  and  four  coils  each  of 
the  following  denominations:  10,  100,  1,000,  10,000.  100,- 
000;  .1.  .01,  .001.  .0001.  .00001.  besides  two  2-ohm.  three 
3-ohm,  two  5-ohm  coils  and  two  megohm  boxes,  this 
giving  in  most  cases  two  reference  standards  and  two 
working  standards  of  each  denomination. 

Special  efforts  have  been  made  to  secure  the  accurate 
comparisons  of  the  i-ohm  coils  with  those  of  the  other 
denominations,  bearing  the  ratios  of  i,   10,  100,  etc. 


Electrical     11  a  a  d  boo  k  69 

iMir  directly  determining  the  ratio  of  two  nearh-  equal 
coils  a  special  set  of  ratio  coils  and  a  four-dial  shunt 
hox  has  been  constructed  wliicli  enables  the  ratio  to  be 
read  off  directly  to  parts  in  a  million,  the  dials  reading 
respectively  .i  per  cent..  .01  per  cent..  .001  per  cent.,  and 
.OOOF  per  cent.  Other  special  apparatus  has  been  built 
or  is  under  way  for  making  precision  measurements 
with  a  niininumi  of  labor  in  the  observations  and  com- 
putations. 

.\  considerable   amount   of  testing  has  been   done  by 
this   section,  chiefly  resistance  standards  and  resistance 
bo.xcs.  but  including  also  a  variety  of  other  apparatus. 
Division  II — Section  2. 

Mciiiiu'tisiii  cind  .Ihsolutc  Mcasiirciiiciit  of  Citrroit.— 
The  work  of  magnetic  testing,  recently  inaugurated, 
is  about  to  l)e  enlarged.  Two  important  researches. 
uamel\\  a  study  of  tlie  silver  voltameter  and  a  rede- 
termination of  the  electro-chemical  equivalent  of  silver 
and  of  the  absolute  value  of  the  Weston  and  Clark 
standard  cells,  have  been  under  way  during  the  past 
year.  .\  new  absolute  electro-dynamometer  is  being 
built   for  the   latter  investigation. 

Division  II— Section  3. 

Induclaiuc  mid  Cuf^acity. — .\  careful  study  of  mica 
and  paper  condensers  has  l)een  made,  including 
the  measurement  of  their  capacities  by  different  meth- 
ods, the  effect  of  time  of  charge  upon  their  measured 
capacity,  and  the  determination  of  absorption,  leakage 
and  temperature  coefficients.  Condensers  have  been  pur- 
chased from  various  makers  in  England.  France,  Ger- 
many and  America,  and  comparisons  made  with  a  view 
of  determining  the  best  performance  to  be  obtained  from 
both  mica  and  paper  condensers  when  used  as  measures 
of  capacity.  Some  very  interesting  and  valuable  results 
have  thus  been  obtained.  Two  large  air  condenser.s 
have  recently'  been  constructed  to  be  used  as  standards. 
A  new  form  of  rotating  commutator  for  use  in  deter- 
mining capacities  in  absolute  measure  has  recentlj'  been 
completed  in  the  instrument  shop  and  has  been  used  in 
this  work. 


70  T  }i  e     Washington 

A  considerable  number  of  standards  of  inductance 
have  been  acquired  and  a  great  deal  of  work  has  been 
done  in  comparing  inductances  and  determining  their 
values  absolutely.  The  Bureau  is  now  in  a  position  to 
make  accurate  measures  of  both  capacity  and  induct- 
ance and  to  compare  and  test  condensers  or  inductance 
standards  for  the  puljlic.  A  considerable  amount  of 
testing  of  this  kind  has  already  been  done. 

Division  11— Section  4. 

Electrical  Mcasioiiig,  Iiistntiiiciits. — This  section 
includes  both  alternating  and  direct-current  in- 
struments (including  instruments  for  measuring 
heavy  current  and  high  potential),  except  those  pre- 
cision instruments  included  in  Section  i.  Some  testing 
of  ammeters,  voltmeters,  wattmeters  and  watt-hour 
meters  has  been  done  for  the  public,  but  the  principal 
work  done  so  far  has  been  preparatory.  ]Many  instru- 
ments have  been  purchased  from  the  best  instrument- 
makers  at  home  and  abroad,  and  other  instruments 
have  been  designed  and  built  in  own  our  shops.  Much 
of  the  apparatus  purchased  has  been  tested,  and  in  some 
cases  altered  and  improved,  and  methods  of  measure- 
ment have  been  investigated. 

In  addition  to  direct-current  generators  and  storage 
batteries,  the  following  equipment  of  generators  for  al- 
ternating current  has  been  acquired  : 

1.  A  small  120-cycle  alternator,  single-phase,  suitable 
for  voltmeter  or  condenser  testing. 

2.  A  three-phase  i20-cycle  alternator  driven  by  an  in- 
verted rotary  used  as  a  motor  and  itself  capable  of 
giving  a  three-phase  6o-cycle  current. 

3.  A  pair  of  6o-cycle  three-phase  revolving  field  alter- 
nators (direct-connected  to  a  driving  motor),  of  which 
one  can  have  its  armature  rotated  by  a  hand  wheel  while 
running,  so  that  its  current  is  displaced  in  phase  with 
respect  to  the  other.  Using  one  of  these  generators  for 
the  main  current  (which  by  use  of  transformers  may  be 
multiplied  at  reduced  voltage)  and  the  other  for  the 
potential  current,  an\-  desired  power  factor  maj'  be  ob- 
tained and  wattmeters  and  watt-hour  meters  conveniently 


Electrical     Handbook  71 

tested  up  to  a  capacity  of  i.ooo  amperes  and  any  desired 
voltage. 

4.  A  pair  of  two-pliasc  alternators,  surface-wound, 
and  giving  currents  of  nearly  sine  wave  form  (direct- 
connected  to  a  driving  motor),  one  alternator  giving  60 
cycles  and  the  other  i<So,  arranged  so  that  the  two  arma- 
tures may  he  placed  in  series  and  the  wave  form  varied 
through  a  considerahle  range  hy  varying  the  magnitude 
and  phase  of  the  third  harmonic.  This  is  useful  in 
studying  the  effects  of  varying  wave-form  on  the  indi- 
cations of  measuring  instruments  of  different  kinds. 
P'or  studying  the  effects  of  variations  of  frequency  the 
speed  can  be  varied  between  wide  limits,  and  for  higher 
frequencies  the  higher  frequency  machine  may  be  used 
alone.  Transformers  are  arranged  to  change  these  two- 
phase  currents  to  three-phase  when  desired. 

5.  Another  three-machine  set  has  recently  been  added 
to  the  equipment.  This  contains  two  6o-cycle  three- 
phase  alternators,  with  adjustable  phase  relation  and 
surface  windings,  giving  nearly  sine  wave  form. 

Special  attention  has  been  given  to  the  matter  of  ac- 
curately measuring  frequency,  phase  and  wave-form,  as 
well  as  alternating  \(>ltages,  currents  and  power.  These 
latter  quantities  are  measured  by  means  of  instruments 
which  admit  of  accurate  calibration  with  direct  currents 
and  electromotive  forces,  the  latter  being  measured  by 
potentiometers,  using  standard  resistances  and  Weston 
cells,  the  e.  m.  f.  of  the  latter  being,  of  course,  known 
in  terms  of  the  standard  Clark  cells  of  the  Bureau. 
Thus  all  current,  voltage  and  power  measurements,  both 
direct  and  alternating,  are  referred  to  standard  resist- 
ances and  standard  cells. 

The  alternating  instruments  employed  are  as  free  as 
possible  from  errors  due  to  inductance,  eddy  currents 
and  capacity.  Corrections  are  applied  for  the  effects  of 
small  residual  inductances  when  necessary.  The  alter- 
nating generators  employed  are  driven  In  motors  oper- 
ated from  storage  batteries,  enabling  the  speed  and  volt- 
age to  be  maintained  very  uniform  and  measurements 
to  be  made  with  great  precision.     Thus  frequency,  volt- 


72  The    Washing  ton 

age,  power  factor  and  wave  form  are  controlled  and 
varied  as  desired,  and  every  effort  is  made  to  secure 
accurate  measurements. 

The  Bureau  is  now  prepared  to  test  alternating  volt- 
meters, ammeters  or  dynamometers,  wattmeters,  watt- 
hour  meters,  phase  and  power  factor  meters,  frequency 
indicators  and  other  similar  apparatus. 

In  the  testing  of  direct-current  instruments  the  Bu- 
reau is  now  prepared  to  handle  apparatus  of  capacities 
up  to  i,ooo  amperes  and  i.ooo  volts.  A  larger  storage 
batterj'  is  being  installed  which  will  give  currents  up  to 
5,000  amperes  at  4  volts,  or  10,000  amperes  at  2  volts, 
and  a  high  potential  battery  of  several  thousand  volts 
will  1)0  installed  in  the  near  future. 

Divfson  II,  Section  5. 

Pluttoinctry. — After  doing  considerable  ])reliminary 
work,  the  Bureau  is  now  prepared  to  test  and  cer- 
tify incandescent  lamps  to  be  used  as  standards,  and  has 
already  done  a  considerable  amounut  of  testing  of  this 
kind  for  manufacturers  and  others. 

A  considerable  number  of  incandescent  lamp  stand- 
ards have  been  obtained  from  the  Reichsanstalt,  the 
ratio  of  the  candle  to  the  Hefner  unit  being  taken  as  ! 
to  .88.  These  reference  standards  are,  of  course,  only 
occasionally  used,  and  the  mean  of  the  values  of  several 
i6-candle  power  lamps  is  taken  as  the  standard  of  the 
Bureau.  Exact  copies  of  these  will  be  added  from  time 
to  time,  so  that  if  a  change  in  any  lamp  is  detected  it 
may  be  discarded  without  impairing  the  completeness 
of  the  set.  The  current  and  voltage  employed  in  testing 
lamps  are  measured  by  a  potentiometer  and  can  be 
maintained  very  constant.  Working  by  the  substitution 
method,  it  is  possible  to  make  very  accurate  comparisons 
and  thus  to  secure  very  exact  copies  of  the  standards  of 
the  Bureau. 

The  purpose  of  the  Bureau  is  not  to  undertake,  at 
least  for  the  pre.sent,  the  conmiercial  testing  of  incan- 
descent lamps  (apart  from  the  testing  done  for  the  gov- 
ernment), but  to  verify  lamps  to  be  used  as  standards 
and  to  make  special   investigations  of  lamps   submitted 


E  I  c  c  t  r  i  col     II  <i  II  d  h  0  0  k  7S 

for  the  purpose.  To  this  end  no  effort  will  he  sparc<l 
to  maintain  relial)le  standards  and  to  certify  copies  with 
the  highest  possihle  precision. 

Division  III— Chemistry. 

As  already  ■~tate<i,  tlie  ciieniical  division  was  late  in 
heing  inaugurated.  Aside  from  the  immense  assistance 
which  a  chemical  lahoratory  can  render  to  physical  in- 
vestigations, the  division  of  chemistry  will  have  impor- 
tant functions  in  its  relations  to  the  chemical  interests 
of  the  country,  and  to  the  customs  service  and  other 
departments  of  the  government.  Some  chemical  work 
is  now  heing  carried  on,  and  detailed  plans  are  being 
developed  for  the  chemical  laboratory  immediately  to  be 
installed  in  tlie  physical  laboratory  now  approaching 
completion. 

Tlie  Exposition  Laboratory. 

In  addition  to  tlie  exiiihit  which  tlic  bureau  is  making 
in  the  Government  Building  at  St.  Louis,  it  has  under- 
taken, at  the  request  of  the  authorities  of  the  Exposi- 
tion, to  install  and  operate  an  electrical  testing  labora- 
tory in  the  Electricity  Building  during  the  Exposition. 
The  work  to  be  done  will  include  the  verification  of 
measuring  instruments  to  be  used  by  the  International 
Jury  of  Awards  in  testing  electrical  machinery  and  the 
testing  for  this  jury  of  instruments  and  apparatus  sul)- 
mitted  by  exhi])itors  in  competition.  It  is  obvious  that 
the  intrinsic  merits  of  an  electrical  instrument  cannot 
be  entirely  determined  liy  inspection,  but  only  by  rigor- 
ous test,  and  that  a  fully  ecpiipped  testing  laboratory  can 
render  important  service  to  a  jury  of  awards  in  the  im- 
portant and  responsible  duties  which  the  latter  is  called 
upon  to  perform. 

This  laboratory  is  located  along  the  east  side  of  the 
electricity  Iniilding,  soutli  of  the  east  entrance.  The 
space  assigned  to  it  is  nearly  200  feet  long  bj'  23  feet 
wide.  A  series  of  rooms  have  been  constructed,  all  of 
which,  except  the  office,  have  been  equipped  for  labora- 
tory purpo.ses.  A  refrigerating  machine  having  a  ca- 
pacity equivalent  to  the  melting  of  ten  tons  of  ice  in 
twentv-four  hours,  installed  bv  the  Carbondale  Machine 


7J^  The     W  a  s  }i  i  n  g  t  0  n 

Company  as  an  exliibit.  is  being  used  in  connection  wil.li 
the  ventilating  machinery  and  heat-regulating  apparatus 
to  control  the  temperature  and  humidity  of  the  atmos- 
phere in  the  laboratories.  Piers  and  other  substantial 
supports  for  apparatus  have  been  installed,  and  every 
effort  has  been  made  to  provide  the  facilities  and  appa- 
ratus necessary  to  do  precision  testing. 

In  addition  to  doing  the  official  testing  for  the  Jury 
of  Awards,  testing  for  others  will  be  done  as  far  as 
practicable.  For  such  work  charges  ,will  be  made  ac- 
cording to  the  regular  schedule  of  fees  of  the  Bureau. 
The  laboratory  also  serves  as  a  working  exhibit,  and 
visitors  are  admitted  at  certain  specified  times.  For 
this  reason  the  exhibit  of  the  Bureau  in  the  Government 
Building  is  largely  historical  and  educational  and  main- 
ly devoted  to  subjects  other  than  electricity. 

The  Scope  of  the  Work  of  the  Bureau. 

The  intention  of  the  Bureau  is  to  provide  every  facil- 
ity necessary  for  experimental  work,  both  for  research 
and  testing,  and  to  have  a  sufficient  force  of  engineers, 
firemen,  electricians  and  other  assistants  so  that  the 
service  may  be  available  at  any  or  all  times.  The  in- 
strument shop  is  already  well  established,  and  the  expec- 
tation is  to  keep  it  so  well  manned  that  any  of  the  vari- 
ous sectional  laboratories  can  l)e  promptly  served  when- 
ever the  work  of  testing  or  research  makes  the  services 
of  a  mechanician  necessary. 

It  is  the  constant  purpose  of  the  Bureau  to  co-operate 
with  instrument-makers  and  manufacturers,  to  the  end 
that  their  output  of  instruments  and  apparatus  may  be 
improved.  Not  simply  to  certify  errors  or  criticise  re- 
sults, but  to  assist  in  perfecting  the  product  is  the  aim. 
In  this  work  the  Bureau  has  so  far  enjoyed  the  confi- 
dence and  co-operation  of  manufacturers  to  a  gratifying 
degree.  It  was  largely  to  meet  their  needs  that  the  Bu- 
reau was  organized,  and  if  by  serving  them  the  standard 
of  excellence  of  American-made  instruments  and  ma- 
chinery is  raised,  the  Bureau  will  have  served  the  pub- 
lic also.  In  several  specific  instances  a  marked  improve- 
ment of  this  kind  is  already  seen,  due  directly  to  the 
influence  of  the  Bureau  of  Standards. 


Electrical    Handbook  75 

The  advantage  to  scientific  men  and  engineers  of  hav- 
ing a  place  in  this  country  where  instruments  and 
standards  may  be  verified  with  the  highest  possible  pre- 
cision and  at  nominal  charges,  and  where  researches 
may  be  undertaken  when  necessary  to  answer  questions 
arising  in  such  comparisons  is  evident.  It  greatly  facili- 
tates precision  work  both  in  engineering  and  in  research. 

The  Bureau  is  also  fulfilling  another  of  the  functions 
mentioned  in  the  act  authorizing  its  establishment,  in 
furnishing  information  on  a  variety  of  subjects  in- 
cluded more  or  less  closely  in  its  field  of  activities.  A 
considerable  correspondence  of  this  kind  has  grown  up. 

The  functions  of  the  Bureau  of  Standards  are  very 
broad  and  its  possibilities  for  usefulness  correspondingly 
great.  It  aims  to  do  in  its  field  what  the  Coast  Survey, 
the  Geological  Survey  and  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture are  doing  in  theirs,  and  what  the  Physikalisch- 
Technische  Reichsanstalt  and  the  Normal-Aichungs 
Kommission  are  doing  in  German3^  To  fully  realize 
these  possibilities  will  of  course  require  a  further  in- 
crease in  equii)ment  and  in  personnel,  and  this,  it  is  e.K- 
pected,  will  be  realized. 


TRANSPORTATION 

AND 

ILLUMINATION. 


78  The     W  a  s  h  i  n  g  1 0  n 


Here  was  Built  the  First  Conduit  Railroad. 

rlRST   of   American   cities  to  possess   a  complete, 
passenger-carrying,     conduit-electric     road     was 
this  city  of  Washington.     The  study  of  its  ante- 
cedents,   its   birth,    its    troubles,    its   growth    and 
its  success  would  rival   any  novel  in  interest.     For  the 
purposes  of  this  book  a  roughly-sketched  historical  out- 
line must  suffice. 

It  is  reasonably  certain  that  in  everything  pertaining 
to  the  adaptation  of  motive  power  for  street  railway 
purposes  the  city  of  Washington  has  been  one  of  the 
most  conspicuous  centers  of  experimentation.  The  rea- 
son for  this  mental,  financial  and  mechanical  activity  is 
found  in  an  uncompromising  public  sentiment  adverse 
to  the  overhead  construction  common  to  all  cities  on 
the  continent.  New  York  and  Washington  alone  ex- 
cepted. 

Forty-two  years  ago  the  national  capital  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  its  first  street-railway  company ;  a  new 
\enture,  and  for  a  long  time  most  unprofitable.  Then 
followed  a  quarter  of  a  century  of  horse-cars ;  con- 
ductorless,  one-horse  cars  in  large  percentage,  yet  af- 
fording facilities  sufficient  for  the  needs  of  a  non-manu- 
facturing and  only  partially  commercial  community. 

During  most  of  those  twenty-five  years  there  was  no 
great  suburban  growth,  but  suddenly  the  farming  re- 
gion around  the  city  (yet  within  the  limits  of  the  Fed- 
eral District)  was  transformed  into  attractive  sub- 
divisions, bristling  with  wonderful  crops  of  surveyors' 
pegs  and  liberally  marked  with  investment-attracting 
signs.  Beauty  spots  previously  unknown  to  the  public 
were  cleverly  exploited,  while  all  the  varieties  of  per- 
suasion were  strenuou.sly  operated  to  the  end  that 
thousands  of  charming  homes  dot  the  delightful  coun- 
Irv  which  stretches  into  Marvland  and  Virginia. 


Electrical     Handbook  70 

Cheap  and  speedy  transportation  was  one  of  the  pri- 
mary essentials  to  settlement.  That  could  not  be  fur- 
nished l)y  horseflesh,  so  the  railroad  mind  turned  to- 
ward other,  more  modern  and  more  rapid  methods  of 
"getting  there."  To  tliink  of  cal)le  for  such  a  purpose 
would  have  been  absurdly  c.\tra\agant,  so  the  overhead 
trolley  was  instantly  agreed  upon  as  the  thing  for  the 
environs.  When  tlurc  was  elYort  to  extend  poles  and 
wires  into  the  cit_\-  proper  then  followed  outcry  and 
strife. 

Allegations  and  pleadings  in  behalf  of  overhead  con- 
struction were  met  with  what  proved  to  be  an  over- 
whelming combination  of  fact  and  argument  presented 
by  Mr.  Theodore  \V.  Noyes.  associate  editor-in-chief  of 
"The  Evening  Star."  who  insisted  that  if  a  conduit- 
operated  road  could  be  commercially  successful  in  Buda- 
pest there  was  no  reason  why  a  similar  venture 
should  fail  in  \\'ashington.  l*"or  years  there  was  raging 
controversy  and  surprising  influx  of  inventive  sugges- 
tion. Storage  batteries  and  jineumatic  motors  were 
among  the  more  prominent  claimants  for  recognition; 
both  methods  succeeded  in  achieving  friends,  creditors 
and  many  interesting  collections  of  non-negotiable  scrip 
and  non-salable  scrap. 

Especially  strong  was  the  light  before  the  District 
and  Appropriations  Committees  of  Congress ;  the  inter- 
ested, the  disinterested  and  the  uninterested  were  heard 
fully  and  freely.  All  the  ills  common  or  ascribed  to 
the  exposed  trolley-wire  were  duly  and  completely  cata- 
logued and  published,  accompanied  by  marginal  refer- 
ences, foot-notes,  tire-loss  statistics  and  mortality  ta 
bles  sufficient  to  completely  overthrow  the  cause  of 
those  who  held  the  o\erhead  trolley  in  high  esteem  as  a 
rapid-transit  method,  but  who  were,  perhaps,  a  trifle 
thoughtless  as  to  the  pro])abIe  effects  of  obstructing 
poles  and  wires  in' the  streets  of  the  nation's  most  beau- 
tiful city. 

Resulting  from  this  struggle  came  legislation  forbid- 
ding further  trolley  trespass  and  authorizing  "any  com- 
pany authorized  by  law  to  run  cars  propelled  by  horses 
in    the    Di.strict    of    Columbia    to    substitute    for   horses 


Electrical    Handbook  SI 

electric  power  by  storage  or  independent  electric  batteries 
or  underground  wire  or  underground  cal)les  moved  by 
steam  power." 

Two  companies — the  Capital  Traction  and  the  Colum- 
bia— lost  little  time  in  accepting  the  statute.  They  pro- 
ceeded to  install  the  expensive  and  generally  trouble- 
some cable,  preferring  a  demonstrated  mechanical  suc- 
cess to  any  of  the  partially  developed  plans  with  which 
their  neighbor — the  Metropolitan — was  struggling.  For 
the  Metropolitan  the  cable  was  an  absolute  impossibil- 
ity, its  main  line  having  a  percentage  of  curves  far 
beyond  the  economical  capacity  of  cable  power  in 
street-railroad   operation. 

Meanwhile  there  had  been  fair  trial  of  a  conduit  sys- 
tem on  U  Street  and  Florida  Avenue,  not  b\-  any  means 
satisfactory,  but  sufficiently  so  to  demonstrate  for  the 
first  time  in  this  country  the  workability  of  a  modified 
Budapest  idea.  Radical  defects  in  construction  and 
insulation  finally  made  the  project  inoperative  just 
about  the  time  when  Congress  stepped  in  to  put  the 
finishing  touches  to  a  distressing  situation  and,  un- 
designedly, to  compel  the  success  which  might  other- 
wise  have   suffered  long  delay. 

"The  Metropolitan  Company  must  abandon  horse- 
flesh as  its  car-moving  power  within  two  j-ears,  or  for- 
feit its  franchise,"  said  the  supreme  Legislature,  in  ef- 
fect. "Likewise,"  said  the  same  body,  a  little  later,  "it 
must  pay  certain  paving  taxes  which  it  declares  it  does 
not  owe,  or  its  charter  will  be  forfeited  within  eighteen 
months." 

For  four  years  from  the  anti-equine  provision  there 
were  experiments,  controversies,  threats  and  promises, 
until  finally — late  in  the  summer  of  1894 — a  legislative 
agreement  was  set  forth  in  an  Act  of  Congress  which 
formally  required  the  Metropolitan  Company  to  operate 
its  cars  by  that  underground  system  which  the  com- 
pany, as  the  results  of  its  experiments,  believed  to  be 
the  only  system  mechanically  and  financially  capable.  It 
was  risky  business,  but  the  company  won  out. 

And  so  it  came  to  be  that  Washington  was  the  first 
city  in  the  Western  Hemisphere  to  possess  and  be 
proud  of  a  complete,  smoothly-operating  and  public- 
satisfying  conduit  electric  railroad. 


Electrical     II  a  n  d  b  o  o  k 


How  the  Washing-ton  Railway  and  Electric 
Company  Came  to  Be, 

^A  Y"^  1  l-"r\"  millions  of  dollars  have  been  added  to 
I  the   value  of  Wasliington  and  suburban  real 

I  estate    by   the    work   just    completed   by   the 

syndicated  railroads."' 

That  remark  was  made  nearly  four  years  ago  by  one 
of  the  city's  most  capable  I'manciers — a  man  whose  judg- 
ment as  to  real  estate  is  as  good  as  the  best.  No  one 
seems  to  have  estimated  as  to  the  added  values  since 
then,  but  it  is  certain  that  the  increase  has  been  steady 
and  satisfactory. 

Before  the  incoming  of  the  Washington  Traction  and 
Electric  Company — now  the  Washington  Railway  and 
Electric  Company — there  were  many  street-railway  or- 
ganizations ;  mostly  disconnected,  generally  antagonistic, 
ancient  as  to  equipment,  wonderfully  inclined  to  careless 
operation,  devoid  of  transfer  relationship  and  unable  to 
gratify  on  a  cash  basis  any  considerable  percentage  of 
their  creditors.  There  were  some  extraordinary  and 
brilliant  exceptions,  of  course,  but  there  were  so  many 
corporate  cripples,  so  many  lean  horses  and  shabby 
bobtail  cars,  so  many  agitating  streaks  of  rust  with  di- 
vorced joints,  so  many  crumbling  roadbeds  and  rickety 
trestles,  that  the  casual  observer  of  the  entire  situation 
found  it  practically  impossible  to  carry  away  an  impres- 
sion that  would  average  as  high  as  "good." 

From  any  other  ])oint  of  view  than  that  of  the  far- 
sighted  and  long-suffering  railway  investor  the  proposi- 
tion was  not  attractive,  but  that  kind  of  a  man  would 
not  permit  himself  to  be  downed  by  little  things,  even  if 
there  were  very  many  of  them  ;  so,  with  his  mind  made 
up,  the  investor  reached  out  and  secured  eleven  of  the 
good,  the  bad,  and  the  indifferent,  as  follows :  The  jNIet- 
ropolitan  Railway  Company,  the  Columbia  Railway 
Company,  the  Anacostia  and  Potomac  River  Railroad 
Company,  the  City  and  Suburban  Railway  of  Washing- 


si. 


Washington  Railway  and  Electric  Com- 
pany's Standard  Plow. 


Electrical     Handbook  80 

ton,  the  Brightwood  Railway  Company,  the  Washing- 
ton, Woodside  and  Forest  Glen  Railway  and  Power 
Company,  the  Georgetown  and  Tennallytown  Railway 
Company,  the  Washington  and  Rockville  Railway  Com- 
pany, the  Washington  and  Glen  Echo  Railroad  Com- 
pany, the  Washington  and  Great  Falls  Electric  Railway 
Company,  and  the  Capital  Railway  Company.  Also  he 
secured  control  of  the  United  States  Electric  Lighting 
Company  and  the  Potomac  l^Jectric  Power  Company, 
believing  that  they  might  be  operated  in  harmony  with 
the  railroads. 

It  was  a  bold  venture.  It  would  have  been  a  bold 
venture  had  all  the  companies  been  in  workable  condi- 
tion. The  properties  had  not  merely  to  be  purchased; 
several  of  them  had  to  be  wholly  rebuilt,  while  there 
was  abundance  of  opportunity  for  necessary  and  expen- 
sive patching.  More  than  four  millions  of  dollars  were 
spent  in  reconstruction.  Large  sums  were  disbursed  in 
the  rebuilding  of  the  Brightwood  and  the  Forest  Glen 
lines.  Then  there  was  the  reconstruction  of  the  George- 
town and  Tennallytown  and  the  building  of  the  Wash- 
ington and  Rockville.  Steel  bridges  with  stone  abut- 
ments superseded  the  decayed  trestle  work  on  the  Wash- 
ington and  Great  Falls  line,  and  the  entire  road  was 
double-tracked.  To  catalogue  the  work  done  and  to 
recite  in  detail  the  expenditures  so  liberally  made  would 
weary  the  reader. 

While  the  work  of  construction  and  reconstruction 
and  repair  was  being  pushed,  strenuous  efforts  were 
also  being  made  to  adapt  the  equipment  of  the  various 
lines  to  the  uses  of  the  companies  and  the  patronizing 
pulilic.  In  all  the  history  of  street  railroading  there 
was  probably  never  such  a  museum  of  equipment  as 
that  which  passed  into  the  possession  of  the  syndicate ; 
every  known  variety  of  car,  all  the  kinds  of  trucks,  with 
motors  ancient  and  modern  and  controllers  ranging 
from  the  first  and  the  worst  to  the  last  and  the  best. 
Then  the  methods  of  handling  many  hundreds  of  em- 
ployes had  to  be  systematized.  Each  road  had  been  run 
after  its  own  fashion,  and  sometimes  the  fashion  was  a 
very  old  one.     The  bringing  of  all  these  inharmonious 


Electrical    Handbook  S7 

elements — animate  and  inanimate — into  some  semblance 
of  order  was  a  tremendous  task,  that  at  times,  especially 
when  the  financial  conditions  took  a  turn  tor  the  worse, 
seemed  to  be  almost  impossible. 

Necessarily  there  was  a  great  deal  of  experimenting, 
and  some  of  this  took  place  even  before  any  serious 
effort  was  made  to  weld  the  lines  into  a  system.  Occa- 
sionally one  of  the  experiments  would  prove  successful 
from  the  popular  point  of  view,  but  more  frequently  it 
met  with  so  much  disapproval  as  to  cause  the  manage- 
ment much  embarrassment.  After  a  while  there  was  a 
satisfactory  condition,  so  far  as  roadways  were  con- 
cerned, and  then  there  came  betterment  as  to  cars  and 
ec|uipnient.  Coincident  with  these  things  was  the  trying 
out  of  the  transfer  question,  a  problem  of  huge  dimen- 
sions and  tilled  with  almost  as  many  intricacies  as  there 
were  passengers  to  be  considered.  As  to  schedules, 
there  were  many  opinions,  and  as  most  of  these  were 
expressed  in  such  a  way  as  to  attract  the  widest  possible 
attention,  the  situation  was  both  involved  and  noisy. 
Out  of  it  all  there  came — and  in  such  a  short,  period  of 
time  that  even  the  most  critical  were  amazed — a  s_vstem 
of  transportation  which  is  a  surprise  to  every  visitor 
and  a  gratification  to  e\er\-  resident.  Of  course  it  is 
still  short  of  perfection.  It  will  always  be  more  or  less 
defective,  because  it  is  controlled  Ijy  human  beings,  and 
perfection  in  human  beings  is  not  expected,  but  it  will 
be  better  a  year  from  now  than  it  is  to-day,  and  it  will 
be  better  two  years  from  now  than  it  will  be  a  twelve- 
month hence.  It  is  the  plan  of  the  management  to 
steadily  improve  the  rolling  stock  until  the  equipment 
is  practically  of  one  type.  Even  when  that  has  been 
accomplished  it  is  not  supposed  that  it  will  result  in 
expressions  of  unusual  i)leasure,  but  it  is  lielieved  that 
the  great  majority  of  the  public  will  be  well  satistied. 

No  city  in  the  United  States  has  railroads  which 
give  to  the  public  so  much  of  a  ride  for  so  little  money 
as  Washington.  For  four  and  one-sixth  cents  a  pas- 
senger can  be  transported  comfortably  and  speedily 
from  the  northern  boundary  of  the  District  to  the 
southernmost    railroad    point     way    beyond    Anacostia ; 


Elect  r  i  c  a  I     Handbook  89 

or  from  the  District  line  on  the  cast  to  the  District 
line  on  the  west.  Such  treniendoush'  long  rides  for  in- 
significant fares  are  not  the  result  of  Congressional  en- 
actment ;  they  have  been  arranged  by  the  companies 
because  it  is  the  plan  to  encourage  riding.  In  other 
cities  it  may  be  possible  to  travel  as  far  for  (wc  cents 
as  one  may  travel  here  upon  tender  of  one  of  the  six 
tickets  which  may  be  purchased  for  25  cents,  but  in  no 
other  city  of  long  rides,  e.\cept  New  York,  is  the  pas- 
senger carried  over  an  underground  electric  system 
which  cost  more  than  $100,000  per  mile  of  double  track. 
I'.lsewhere  is  the  inliiiitely  clioaper  and  esthetically  less 
desirable  overhead  trolley,  with  its  obstructive  poles 
and  exposed  wires.  Washington's  streets  are  clear  and 
its  car  service  about  as  near  ideal  as  it  c:nild  lie  at  this 
time. 

Within  the  city  there  is  still  room  for  something  of 
extension.  Recently  the  Washington  Railway-  and 
Electric  Conii)any — which,  while  it  controls  all  the  rail- 
roads named  at  the  outset,  consists  only  of  the  old 
Metropolitan.  Columbia  and  Washington  and  Great 
I-'alls  companies — extended  its  Connecticut  Avenue  line 
to  Park  Street,  Mount  Pleasant,  and  now  the  Anacostia 
and  Potomac  River  Railroad  Company  is  extending  its 
Eleventh  Street  line  into  Holmead  Manor,  so  as  to  pro- 
vide accommodations  for  what  soon  promises  to  be  a 
thickly  settled  portion  of  the  city.  Away  out  in  Mary- 
land the  tracks  of  the  City  and  Suburban  Railway  con- 
nect with  a  line  now  running  to  Laurel,  and  probably 
soon  to  be  extended  through  EUicott  City  to  Baltimore. 
The  first  electric  line  to  Baltimore,  however,  will  come 
into  Washington  o\er  the  tracks  of  the  Washington 
Railway  and  Electric  Company,  and  have  its  terminus 
at  Eifteenth  and  H  Streets  northeast,  from  which  point 
passengers  will  be  conveyed  to  the  various  parts  of  the 
city  over  the  lines  of  the  system.  All  of  these  things 
mean  much  to  suburban  Washington,  and  they  mean  a 
great  deal  for  the  city  and  its  business.  The  city  mer- 
chant prospers  because  new  customers  are  transported 
to  his  stores.  The  owner  of  outlying  real  estate 
achieves  wealth  because  distance  is  annihilated  by  rapid 


Electrical     Handbook 


91 


transit.  The  thrifty  citizen  acquires  a  liume  with  com- 
parative ease  by  moving  a  few  miles  out  of  town  to  a 
place  where  land  is  cheap  and  where  buildings  are  less 
expensive  because  less  pretentious  than  in  the  city. 
There  is  all-around  prosperity,  and  the  frequently 
abused  railroad  is,  after  all,  one  of  the  greatest  of  pub- 
lic benefactors. 


Electrical     Handbook  !JJ 


POTOMAC  ELECTRIC  POWER  COMPANY. 

UN  TIL  twenty-three  jears  ago  no  effort  had  lieen 
made  to  use  electric  current  for  lighting  pur- 
poses in  Washington.  Of  course,  there  were 
laboratory  experiments  long  prior  to  that  time, 
and  there  was  occasional  display  of  individual  interest 
when  there  came  news  of  modern  illuminating  methods 
put  in  common  practice  elsewhere,  but  no  one  had 
made  any  commercial  attempt  at  electric  lightinir  with- 
in the  District  of  Columbia. 

That  first  effort  doubtless  dwells  in  tlic  memories  of 
many  people.  The  Society  of  the  Army  of  the  Cum- 
berland was  holding  its  reunion  at  the  national  capital, 
and  there  was  a  great  deal  of  public  concern  as  to  the 
proceedings  of  the  society.  ^Nloney  was  contributed  by 
the  citizens  in  order  that  the  celebration  might  be  com- 
pletely successful.  One  of  the  projected  plans  of  enter- 
tainment included  the  illumination  of  Pennsylvania 
Avenue  from  the  Peace  Monument  to  the  Treasury 
Building.  The  idea  aroused  great  enthusiasm  and  there 
was  wholesale  manifestation  of  interest  in  the  work  of 
suspending  arc  lamps  above  the  center  of  the  avenue 
at  considerable  intervals.  A  dynamo  was  imported  for 
the  occasion  and  was  belted  to  an  engine  in  a  Thirteenth 
Street  sawmill.  When  the  appointed  time  arrived  the 
avenue  was  thronged  with  people  who  were  anxious  to 
see  the  promised  transformation  of  night  into  day. 
The  transformation  did  not  take  place.  All  the  way 
from  the  boiler  room  to  the  carbons  there  was  all  sorts 
of  trouble,  and  the  waiting  multitude  saw  nothing  more 
than  an  occasional  glow  or  a  sputtering  succession  of 
sparking  efforts  to  do  business. 

Out  of  that  very  distressing  failure  came  success. 
Tlie  very  magnitude  of  the  disappointment  operated  on 
a  few  minds  with  so  much  of  force  that  in  a  little 
while  there  was  organized  a  company  whose  members 
proceeded  to  wrestle  with  the  many  difficulties  in  the 
way    of    maintaining    an    efficient    electric    light    plant. 


94  The    W  a  s  h  i  ngto  n 

That  company  went  the  way  of  so  many  companies,  and 
a  little  more  than  a  year  thereafter  was  organized  the 
United  States  Electric  Lighting  Company ;  when,  for 
the  tirst  time,  was  the  electric  light  proposition  placed 
upon  a  business  basis.  It  was  a  very  small  business, 
though,  for  at  the  first  annual  meeting  the  report 
showed  that  there  were  only  ninety-one  arc  lights  and 
one  hundred  incandescent  lights  in  operation.  Satis- 
fied with  the  prospects,  however,  the  company  proceeded 
to  increase  its  equipment  and  to  reach  out  for  business. 
The  first  was  easy,  so  long  as  there  was  money  avail- 
able. The  second  was  slow  because  there  was  popular 
timidity  as  to  the  electric  current,  and  there  was  strong 
opposition  from  organizations  interested  in  the  burning 
of  oil  and  gas. 

From  the  outset  the  United  States  Electric  Lighting 
Company  was  intent  upon  using  only  the  most  modern 
devices  and  methods.  Realizing  that  the  city  was  en- 
titled to  all  possible  consideration,  it  proceeded  to  lay 
conduits  so  that  its  many  lines  would  be  beneath  the 
street  surfaces.  That  was  an  extremely  expensive  prop- 
osition, but  it  was  appreciated  bj^  the  public  and  by  all 
who  believed  in  the  beautification  of  Washington.  To- 
day the  company's  conduit  system  is  a  model  in  every 
respect. 

For  about  two  ^-ears  Penns3'lvania  Avenue  had  a 
monopoly  of  public  arc  lighting — lighting  for  which 
the  company  was  not  remunerated — and  then  a  number 
of  property  holders  and  merchants  on  F  street  decided 
that  arc  lights  were  needed  on  their  thoroughfare :  so 
they  subscribed  a  sufficient  sum  and  thus  made  excel- 
lent showing  of  the  spirit  which  gave  to  F  street  an 
unassailable  business  supremacy. 

For  two  weeks  in  July,  1885,  gas,  oil  and  other  an- 
cient illuminants  were  temporarilj'  in  complete  posses- 
sion of  the  cit}',  a  fire  having  destroyed  the  lighting 
company's  plant.  Two  weeks  after  the  fire  all  of  the 
principal  lamps  were  again  in  operation,  and  before  the 
close  of  the  year  there  were  more  than  two  hundred 
arc  lamps  and  nearly  three  hundred  incandescent  lamps 
rendering  satisfactory   service. 


Electrical     Handbook  95 

Since  that  time  the  growth  has  been  steadj-.  Changes 
of  administration  have  occurred,  old  equipment  has 
been  replaced  by  new,  building  has  succeeded  building, 
until  now  the  Potomac  Electric  Power  Company — 
which  has  recently  absorbed  the  United  States  Electric 
Lighting  Company — supplies  all  of  the  power  needed 
for  electric  lighting  purposes  and  nearly  all  the  power 
necessary  for  the  operation  of  the  railroads  controlled 
by  the  Washington  Railway  and  Electric  Company. 

As  each  individual  railway  company  equipped  its 
road  electrically,  a  power  plant  was  built  for  it,  and 
when  the  roads  now  forming  the  system  were  consoli- 
dated, feeders  were  rearranged  and  plants  intercon- 
nected in  such  manner  as  to  produce  the  best  obtain- 
able results  under  the  existing  conditions.  Raihvay 
generators  were  removed  from  the  Georgetown  Metro- 
politan Railroad  plant  to  the  lighting  company's  plant, 
at  Fourteenth  and  B  Streets  northwest,  which  is  very 
near  the   center  of  the  city. 

The  550-volt  direct-current  is  furnished  by  (i)  the 
old  Columbia  Railway  plant  at  the  extreme  east  of  the 
city;  (2)  the  plant  of  the  old  Metropolitan  Railroad 
Company  at  the  extreme  south  of  the  city,  on  Four-and- 
a-half  Street  southwest;  (3)  the  plant  of  the  Po- 
tomac Electric  Power  Company,  located  at  the  extreme 
west,  at  Thirty-third  and  K  Streets  northwest;  and 
(4)  by  the  plant  at  Fourteenth  and  B  Streets  north- 
west, which  is  a  little  west  of  the  center  of  the  city. 

In  addition,  a  substation  in  Washington  Street,  about 
a  block  from  the  Pension  Office,  contains  a  large  stor- 
age battery  and  a  switchboard  so  arranged  that  the 
substation  is  practically  a  "clearing  house"  for  street 
railway  current.  Feeders  from  all  of  the  plants  and 
cable  connections  with  all  the  near-by  lines  are  brought 
to  this  switchboard,  and  it  is  here  possible  to  tie  to- 
gether all  of  the  lines  electrically,  with  or  without  the 
battery,  to  use  the  battery  to  assist  one  or  more  cir- 
cuits independently,  or  by  means  of  a  booster  to  assist 
any  one  of  the  main  stations. 

From  the  plant  at  Thirty-third  and  K  Streets  two- 
phase  current  is  distributed  to  three  sulistations  located 


Electrical     H  and  h  o  o  1:  97 

in  the  suburbs.  These  supply  current  for  the  operation 
of  some  of  the  suburban  overhead  trolley  lines.  The 
two-phase  feeders  also  pass  through  the  main  sul)- 
station  in  Washington  Street. 

The  two-phase  system  of  distribution  is  gradually 
being  displaced  by  the  three-phase  system,  current  for 
which  is  furnished  by  a  2000-kilowatt  turbo  generator 
of  the  Curtis  type,  which  was  recently  installed  in  the 
plant  at  Fourteenth  and  B  Streets  northwest. 

Three-phase  current  will  be  transmitted  to  both  light- 
ing and  railway  substations,  and  is  also  converted  into 
single-phase  current  for  suburban  lighting. 

These  plants,  with  their  combined  capacity  of  about 
18,000  horse-power,  turn  the  wheels  that  run  on  more 
than  160  miles  of  street-railway  tracks  and  that  operate 
incandescent  lamps  by  the  hundred  thousand,  more  than 
a  thousand  street  arc  lamps,  and  independent  motors 
aggregating  nearly  5.000  horse-power. 

The  increase  in  the  utilization  of  the  electric  light  and 
power  is  best  sliown  by  some  comparisons  between  the 
output  of  the  plant  for  several  years  back. 

At  the  time  of  the  consolidation  of  the  two  competing 
companies,  in  1898.  the  total  direct-current  load  was 
11,000  amperes;  one  year  later  the  peak  load  had  in- 
creased to  18,000  amperes,  and  in  December,  1903,  the 
peak  load  was  32,900  amperes.  During  this  period  the 
suburban  lighting  by  the  alternating  system  also  largely 
increased  in  volume. 

The  present  lighting  station  at  Fourteenth  and  B 
Streets  northwest  was  new  in  1897,  and  was  designed 
with  the  idea  that  it  would  be  ample  in  capacity  for 
ten  years  at  least.  The  new  policy  which  was  inaugu- 
rated l)y  the  officials  of  the  consolidated  companies  re- 
sulted in  an  increase  in  output  in  the  first  year  of  65 
per  cent.,  and  in  five  years  has  shown  that  a  new  sta- 
tion on  much  broader  lines  must  shortly  be  constructed. 

The  total  connected  horse-powder  in  motors  at  present 
is  4,545.     Total  lamps  connected.  201.706.     Total  equiva- 
lent connected  load  in  1901  was  150.000  i6-candlepower 
lamps ;  in  1904  it  is  277,000  i6-candlepower  lamps. 
The  current  is  transmitted  through  hundreds  of  tons 


2000  K.  W.  Steam  Turbine,  Potomac  Electric  Power  Co. 


Electrical     II  a  n  d  b  oo  k  90 

of  copper  cable  laid  in  conduits,  the  lineal  measurement 
of  which  exceeds  1,250.000  duct  feet.  The  big  station  is 
one  of  the  show  places  of  Washington  for  those  people 
who  can  secure  permission  to  inspect  it. 

These  days,  liowcvcr,  witness  only  the  licginning  of 
the  electrical  age  in  Washington.  A  short  time  ago  the 
Potomac  Electric  Power  Company  purchased  all  of  the 
rights  and  property  of  the  Great  Falls  Power  Company, 
and  is  now  considering  the  development  of  the  thou- 
sands of  horse-power  which  have  so  long  gone  to  waste 
s.  few  miles  al)ove  the  citj'.  With  this  combination  of 
waterfall  and  steam  harnessed  together,  the  Potomac 
Electric  Power  Company  proposes  to  make  Washington 
an  ideal  city,  both  as  to  light  and  power.  With  the 
coming  of  the  promised  increase  in  facilities  it  would 
be  unprofitable  for  any  manufacturer  in  Washington  to 
operate  an  independent  steam  plant,  because  the  power 
company  will  be  al>!e  to  supply  his  needs  at  much  less 
cost  than  they  could  ])e  supplied  liy  himself.  To-diiy 
no  residence  is  ])uill  without  provision  being  made  in 
its  construction  fur  those  applications  of  electricity 
which  give  light  and  heat  and  which  otherwise  con- 
tribute to  the  comfort  that  is  now  a  necessity. 

Compared  with  otiier  cities  of  the  United  States, 
Vi'ashington  may  fairly  be  termed  "wireless."  Through 
telegraph  wires  are  still  in  existence  on  a  few  thorough- 
fares, and  occasionally  one  may  get  a  sight  of  tele- 
phone, electric  light,  police,  fire-alarm  or  messenger 
service  wires  securely  pole-strung,  but  within  a  very 
short  period  of  time  all  wires  owned  by  the  telephone 
and  electric  light  companies  will  be  underground,  leav- 
ing little  more  than  the  municipal  copper  overhead. 
That  would  not  be  so  could  the  local  authorities  secure 
from  Congress  funds  sufficient  for  that  useful  purpose. 

The  steady  abandonment  of  overhead  construction  by 
the  telephone  and  lighting  companies  is  altogether 
voluntary.  There  was  a  time  when  it  was  necessarily 
not  so,  but  now  both  of  these  corporations  can  afford 
to  indulge  in  such  operating  luxuries  (and  ultimate 
economies)   as  conduits,  and  they  are  doing  so  just  as 


100  Tlic.     Washington 

rapidly  as  any  reasonable  person  could  desire.  Local 
public  sentiment  has  expressed  itself  very  strongly  on 
the  question  of  wires — ranging  from  the  man  who  ob- 
jected to  them  "because  they  make  the  English  spar- 
rows' feet  sore"  to  the  men  who  advance  the  best  of 
reasons  why  the  ol)structions  should  be  interred — so 
the  corporate  pride  i)f  Washington  is  doing  large  share 
of  that  work  of  i)u])lic  improvement  which  will  soon 
make  the  nation's  cajiital  beautiful  beyond  compare. 


Electrical     Ha  n  dbo  o  k         101 


THE  SYSTEM  OF  THE  CAPITAL  TRACTION  CO. 

THE  first  street  car  scr\icc  in  Washington  was  be- 
gun in  July.  iS(u,  wlien  the  Washington  and 
Cieorgetown  Raih-oad  Company  ran  its  first  horse 
cars  on  Pennsylvania  Avenue.  The  Pennsyl- 
vania Avenue  line  has  been  operated  without  interrup- 
tion since,  and  as  the  public's  needs  for  service  in  other 
sections  were  manifested,  they  have  been  met  by  the 
other  lines  and  various  extensions. 

When  it  became  apparent  that  the  Imrse  car  was  not 
adequate,  in  the  later  '8o's,  the  company  considered  what 
form  of  mechanical  system  would  best  meet  the  con- 
ditions. The  overhead  trolley  system,  then  just  begin- 
ning to  be  generally  u.sed,  was  properly  not  allowed  in 
Washington,  and  the  cable,  the  only  other  successful 
method  of  jiropulsion  then  axailable,  was  adopted.  '!  lie 
Seventh  Street  line  was  first  equipped,  and  immediately 
after  that  was  put  in  operation,  in  1890,  work  was  begun 
on  the  other  lines,  so  that  August,  1892,  found  all  the 
Washington  and  Georgetown  Railroad's  system  operated 
by  cable.  This  system  continued  to  give  satisfactory 
service  until  September,  1897,  when  the  burning  of  the 
company's  large  central  power  station,  at  Fourteenth 
Street  and  Pennsylvania  Avenue,  put  all  the  lines  ex- 
cept Seventh  Street  out  of  commission.  The  fire  oc- 
curred after  i.i  at  night,  but  the  disabled  cable  cars  were 
hauled  oflf  the  street  and  the  trail  cars  started  out  with 
horse  power  on  a  regular  schedule  the  following  morn- 
ing. 

In  the  meantime  the  conduit  electric  system  had  been 
de\eloped  and  pro\'en  satisfactory  on  the  .Melro|)()litan 
Railwaj-  Company's  lines  in  Washington  and  also  in 
New  York,  so  the  company's  directors  decided  not  to  re- 
build the  cable  power  station,  l)ut  to  equip  the  entire 
road  with  that  system.  Fortunately,  the  concrete  cable 
conduit  was  well  adapted  to  the  electric  system,  and 
work  was   soon  begun  on  the  track,   power  station  and 


5SE 

9.0 


o  s 


Electrical     H  a  n  dh  oo  k         103 

cars,  so  that  both  the  Pennsylvania  Avenue  and  Four- 
teenth Street  lines  were  electrically  operated  from  t!ie 
company's  own  power  station  in  April,  1898.  Parts  of 
the  lines  had  heen  run  some  months  before  that  time. 

The  Seventh  Street  cable  road  was  also  rebuilt,  the 
work  l)einf4  done  witliout  interrujjtion  to  the  cable  sys- 
tem, whicli  was  driven  by  a  separate  station,  now  aban- 
doned. 

In  September,  1895,  the  Wa.shington  and  Georgetow-n 
Railroad  Company  and  the  Rock  Creek  Railway  Com- 
pany were  consolidated  under  tlie  rame  of  the  Capital 
Traction    Company. 

The  Rock  Creek  Railway  Comjjany  built  its  line  from 
Chevy  Chase  Lake,  Md.,  two  miles  beyond  the  District 
line,  to  the  corner  of  Eighteenth  and  U  streets,  in  1892. 
using  the  overhead  trolley.  A  year  later  it  built  an  ex- 
tension along  U  Street  to  Seventh  Street,  using  the  Love 
conduit  system.  This  was  among  the  first  conduit  elec- 
trical roads  l)uilt  and  was  probably  the  first  to  be  regu- 
larly operated.  It  consisted  of  cast-iron  yokes.  4  feet 
6  inches  apart,  supporting  the  wheel  and  slot  rails,  and 
connected  by  a  19-inch  conduit  formed  by  cast-iron 
plates.  The  conductors  were  bare  copper  wire,  sus- 
pended by  composition  insulators  from  the  yokes,  under 
U-shaped  slot  rails.  The  current  was  collected  by  an 
under-running  two-wheel  trolley.  This  road  w-as  oper- 
ated until  March.  1859,  when  it  was  rebuilt  with  ihe 
standard  con.duit  electric  system.  It  was  operated  m  a 
fairly  satisfactory  manner,  the  difficulties  being  htrgely 
due  to  the  flimsy  construction  of  the  road  and  the  un- 
substantial in.sulation. 

The  Capital  Traction  Company's  system  comprises  the 
Penn-sylvania  Avenue,  Fourteenth  Street,  Seventh  Street 
and  Chevy  Chase  Lines,  fifteen  and  one-half  miles  of 
double  track,  conduit  electric,  and  five  miles  of  double 
track,  overhead  trolley  line.  These  several  lines  operate 
between  90  and  125  trains,  each  train  being  usually  com- 
po.sed  of  a  motor  car  and  a  trailer. 


Elc  ctr  ica  I    11  a  ad  ho  o  k  10  J 

Road-bed  Construction. 

Tlic  conduit  system  is  practicall\'  tlu'  same  as  that 
in  nse  by  tlic  New  York  surface  lines  and  tlic  other  lines 
in  Washington.  Power  for  the  entire  conduit  system  is 
furnished  from  a  power  station  of  2,625-kilowatt  capac- 
ity, located  on  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal,  between 
Thirty-second  and  Potomac  Streets  northwest.  Power 
for  the  overhead  line  is  furnished  by  a  station  situated 
at  the  northern  terminus  of  the  Chevy  Chase  line. 

The  conduit  system  embraces  two  standard  types,  one, 
including  twelve  miles  of  double  track,  is  a  reconstruc- 
tion of  the  calile  road,  and  the  remainder  was  built  es- 
pecially for  the  electric  system.  The  first  (shown  in 
Fig.  I)  consists  of  a  concrete  conduit  36  inches  deep 
with  6-inch  wheel  rail  and  slot  rail  supported  on  cast- 
iron  yokes,  spaced  4  feet  6  inches  center  to  center.  The 
T-shaped  conductor  rails,  weighing  23  pounds  to  the 
yard,  arc  supported  by  porcelain  insulators  whose  cast- 
iron  caps  are  bolted  to  the  lower  flange  of  the  slot  rail. 
The  conductor  rails  are  31  feet  6  inches  long  and  are 
supported  at  each  end  and  in  the  center.  Their  joints 
are  bonded  with  two  0000  flexible  copper  bonds. 

In  reconstructing  the  cable  road  for  the  electrical  sys- 
tem it  was  thought  best  to  provide  a  drip  under  the  slot 
rail,  so  that  surface  water  would  fall  to  the  ground  at 
the  slot  between  the  conductor  rails,  instead  of  follow- 
ing the  lower  surface  of  the  slot  rail  and  falling  on  the 
conductor  rails.  To  provide  this,  a  small  angle  iron  was 
riveted  on  the  under  side  of  the  slot  rail  while  in  its 
position  in  the  street.  All  sections  of  slot  rail  rolled 
especially  for  the  conduit  electrical  system  are  provided 
with  this  drip  rolled  on  the  rail. 

The  only  differences  between  the  com])any's  present 
standard  construction  and  the  reconstructed  cal)le  road 
are  in  the  details,  the  depth  being  25  inches  instead  of 
the  36  inches  which  was  necessary  for  the  cable  road, 
and  deeper  rails  are  used,  8-inch  for  wheel  rail  and  7- 
inch  for  slot.  The  deep  conduit  has  unquestionably  con- 
siderable advantages,  due  to  better  drainage  facilities 
and  less  Habilitv  to  short   circuits  from   wires  or  other 


? 


FA  ectr  i  cal     Handbook  107 

iiietallic  wastes  from  the  street.    Tlie  standard  construc- 
tion as  built  for  the  electric  system  is  shown  in  Fig.  2. 

The  conductor  rail  insulation  has  proved  very  satis- 
factory in  the  six  years  the  Capital  Traction  Company's 
system  has  been  in  operation.  The  insulation  is  not 
high,  there  being  an  appreciable  leakage  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  porcelain  insulators,  particularly  during  and 
after  rains,  but  it  is  quite  substantial  and  there  is  no  rec- 
ord of  an  insulator  l)urning  out  except  from  mechanical 
injury  or  an  arc  forming  near  enough  for  the  heat  to 
crack  the  porcelain. 

Power  Station. 

Tlic  Grace  Street  i)()\ver  station,  which  furnishes  cur- 
rent for  all  the  urlian  lines  of  the  Capital  Traction  Com- 
pany, is  located  on  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal,  on 
which  the  coal  is  delivered  in  canal  boats,  and  which 
furnishes  water  for  the  boilers  and  jet  condensers.  The 
building  is  a  long,  narrow  one.  not  very  well  suited  in 
shape  for  this  purpose,  but  was  in  the  company's  pos- 
session at  the  time  of  the  destruction  of  their  cable 
power  station,  and  required  only  minor  alterations.  It 
is  of  brick,  with  slate  roof,  and  has  one  brick  cross  wall 
dividing  it  into  two  main  compartments,  one  containing 
the  boiler  plant  and  coal  bunkers,  and  the  other  the  en- 
gines, electrical  equipment  and  accessories.  Coal  is  de- 
livered in  canal  boats  at  the  western  end  of  the  building, 
where  it  is  hoisted  in  buckets  and  deposited  through  a 
weighing  hopper  and  crusher  to  the  coal  conveyor  and 
thence  taken  to  the  coal  bins  over  the  boiler  room.  Pro- 
vision is  also  made  to  unload  coal  directly  into  two  stor- 
age yards  adjacent  to  the  station  building. 

The  coal  conveyor  was  built  by  the  Steel  Cable  Engi- 
neering Company,  of  Boston,  ]\Iass.,  and  consists  of  four 
endless  steel  cables,  ->^-inch  in  diameter,  to  which  are 
clamped  at  intervals  of  one  foot  cast-iron  attachments 
which  form  axles  for  the  wheels  carrying  the  conveyor, 
and  to  which  are  bolted  the  pans  and  buckets,  the  latter 
swinging  on  pivots.  The  conveyor  is  carried  on  wheels 
3  inches  in  diameter,  running  on  a  two-foot  gauge  track. 
The  conveyor  is  dri\en  1)_\-  a  shunt-wound  12  horse- 
power, 500-volt  motor,  and  is  used  to  remove  ashes  from 


108  The    Washington 

under  the  boilers,  as  well  as  placing  coal  in  the  bunkers. 
The  coal  bunkers  are  divided  into  three  parts ;  the 
main  bin  is  V-shaped  and  runs  the  entire  length  of  the 
boiler  room,  delivering  coal  through  measuring  hoppers 
and  chutes  directly  to  the  hopper  over  each  grate ;  the 
smaller  coal  bunkers  are  also  V-shaped  and  are  situated 
over  the  back  of  the  boilers.  They  are  only  used  for 
storage  purposes.  The  coal  bins  are  supported  on  trusses 
erected  on  columns  at  the  side  walls  and  a  row  of  col- 
umns down  the  center  of  the  fire  room.  The  bin  walls 
consist  of  arches  sprung  between  I  beams.  The  arches 
are  of  concrete  formed  with  a  flat  interior  surface  on 
corrugated  iron  arch  plates,  with  a  thickness  of  concrete 
at  crown  of  arch  of  3  inches.  The  total  capacity  of  the 
coal  bins  is  about  2,000  tons,  with  additional  storage 
capacity  of  about  2,000  tons  in  the  yards. 
Boiler  Equipment. 
The  boiler  plant  consists  of  eight  boilers,  arranged  in 
four  batteries.  Each  boiler  is  of  330  nominal  horse- 
power and  is  of  the  Babcock  &  Wilson  horizontal  water 
tube  type,  manufactured  by  the  Aultman  &  Taylor  Ma- 
chinery Company.  Each  boiler  has  a  water  heating  sur- 
face of  about  3,300  square  feet,  with  grate  area  of  75 
square  feet.  They  are  operated  under  a  normal  steam 
pressure  of  140  pounds,  and  the  tubes  were  originally 
tested  under  a  hydrostatic  pressure  of  300  pounds.  The 
gases  from  all  boilers  pass  through  brick  flues  to  a  cen- 
trally located  steel  stack  150  feet  high  by  9  feet  internal 
diameter,  lined  with  red  brick.  The  chimney  is  anchored 
to  a  brick  foundation  built  down  to  bed  rock.  Locke 
damper  regulators  are  provided  on  each  flue.  The  coal 
is  delivered  through  hoppers  in  front  of  each  boiler  into 
Roney  mechanical  stokers,  driven  by  small  Westing- 
house  engines.  These  stokers  have  proved  very  satis- 
factory with  the  George's  Creek  semi-bituminous  coal, 
giving  good  combustion,  with  practically  no  smoke  com- 
ing from  the  stack  under  ordinary  circumstances. 

Steam  and  Water  Piping. 

The  boiler  feed  water  is  taken  from  the  Chesapeake 
and  Ohio  Canal,  flowing  alongside  the  station,  into  a 
concrete  well  under  the  engine  room,  thence  it  is  lifted 


Electrical     H  and  boo  I:  lO'f 

by  an  automatically  controlled  tank  pump  into  a  4,000- 
gallon  tank  situated  back  of  tbe  boilers.  From  this  tank 
the  feed  water  ])asses  through  two  Loomis-Manning  fil- 
ters having  a  capacity  of  300,000  gallons  in  twenty-four 
hours,  and  from  there  it  is  forced  by  Deane  boiler  pumps 
through  the  heaters  into  the  boilers.  Provision  is  made 
for  supplying  water  from  the  city  mains  into  the  tank, 
and  ail  emergency  water  feed  line  is  placed  back  of  the 
boilers,  supplied  by  two  Metropolitan  injectors. 

The  exhaust  from  each  main  engine  passes  through  its 
own  Berryman  feed  water  heater  to  its  own  Deane  jet 
condenser,  thence  through  a  cast-iron  discharge  pipe 
into  the  canal.  An  independent  14-inch  spiral  riveted 
exhaust  pipe  is  also  provided  for  each  engine.  The  ex- 
haust from  the  condensers,  pumps  and  lighting  engine 
all  pass  through  a  large  Berryman  heater  situated  in  the 
boiler  room.  .A  space  was  left  in  the  boiler  room  for  an 
economizer,  Ijut  none  has  as  yet  been  installed,  the  flue 
gases  passing  directly  to  the  chimney.  The  average 
temperature  of  the  feed  water  after  passing  through  the 
different  heaters  is  about  181  degrees  F. 

The  main  steam  pipe  line  is  on  the  loop  sj'stem,  a 
main  12-inch  header  running  the  entire  length  of  the 
building  on  the  north  side  and  an  au.xiliary  lo-inch  one 
on  the  south.  These  are  connected  at  each  end  and  also 
by  an  8-inch  equalizing  main  run  along  the  dividing 
wall  between  the  engine  and  boiler  rooms.  All  bends  in 
the  steam  mains  are  made  on  a  long  radius,  and  it  was 
unnecessary  to  provide  any  expansion  joints.  Gate 
valves  are  provided  in  the  headers,  so  that  any  unit, 
either  engine  or  boiler,  can  be  cut  out  and  repairs  made 
without  interfering  with  the  steam  sujjph-. 

Engine  Room. 

The  main  generating  units  are  live  in  number,  each 
consisting  of  an  800  horse-power  engine,  direct  con- 
nected to  a  G.  E.  525-kilowatt,  600-volt  generator.  The 
engines  are  20x40.x42-inch  tandem  compound,  running  at 
100  revolutions  per  minute,  made  by  the  E.  P.  AUis 
Company,  with  the  well-known  features  of  this  type. 


no  The     WasJiington 

Tlic  generators  are  standard  General  Electric,  eight- 
pole   machines,   compfunul    wound,   giving  a   voltage   of 

550  at  no  load,  and  Ooo  at  full  load. 

As  two  of  the  feeder  lines  are  quite  long  for  direct- 
current  work,  their  pressure  is  increased  hy  motor- 
driven  boosters.  Three  of  these  booster  sets  are  pro- 
vided, placed  in  the  engine  room  lietween  the  main 
units;  each  consists  of  a  600-volt,  6-pole  shunt  motor, 
direct  connected  to  a  series  generator,  with  a  capacity 
of  550  amperes  and  180  volts,  giving  a  straight  line  char- 
acteristic from  o  to  100  volts  when  operated  at  a  speed 
of  600  revolutions  per  minute. 

The  switchboard  is  about  50  feet  long  and  is  situated 
along  the  south  side  of  the  engine  room  about  5  feet 
from  the  wall.  It  consists  of  a  standard  panel  for  each 
generator,  a  total  output  panel  containing  wattmeter  and 
ammeter;  two  panels  for  each  pair  of  feeders;  panels  for 
each  booster  motor :  two  panels  with  switches,  allowing 
either  of  the  three  boosters  to  be  thrown  on  either  of 
the  two  feeders  whose  pressure  is  to  be  raised:  a  rheo- 
stat panel ;  and  a  panel  controlling  the  600-volt  lighting 
and  power  circuits  about  the  building. 

As  the  system  fed  is  a  metallic  circuit  with  neither  side 
grounded,  equal  switching  facilities  are  provided  for 
each  pole  of  each  feeder,  and  double-throw  switches  are 
used,  so  that  the  polarity  can  be  reversed  on  each  cir- 
cuit. This  is  done  to  provide  against  short  circuits 
which  might  occur  from  grounds  occurring  on  different 
sides  of  two  different  circuits. 

In  addition  to  the  600-volt  units,  there  is  a  direct- 
connected  50-kilowatt,  125-volt  lighting  set.  This  pro- 
vides lights  for  the  power  station  for  the  company's 
shops,  which  are  situated  across  the  canal,  and  also  for 
the  main  office  building  and  car  barn  a  few  blocks  away. 
The  station  is  well  lighted  naturally  by  numerous  win- 
dows and  artificially  by  numerous  arc  and  incandescent 
lamps.  Incandescent  lamps  on  both  600-volt  and  125- 
Tolt  circuits  are  distributed  over  the  whole  buildina:. 


E lee  tr  i  ca  I    Handbook  111 

Lul)ricatinn  nf  the  1)earings  is  taken  care  of  l)y  a 
gravity  oil  sujiply  fed  from  a  twelve-barrel  tank  sus- 
pended near  the  to])  of  the  end  wall  in  the  engine  room. 
Cylinder  oil  is  sn])])Iied  to  eacii  cylinder  under  jircssurc 
tiirough  sight   feed  hihricators. 

The  engine  room  lloor  is  of  hard  pine,  laid  on  con- 
crete arches,  supported  on  1  beams,  which  are  in  lurii 
supported  b_\'  the  machine  foundations  and  cast-iron  col- 
unuis.  All  foundations  for  main  units  and  accessories 
are  of  l)rick  extending  to  bed  rock.  A  15-ton,  hand- 
operated  crane  sjians  the  engine  room,  running  the  full 
length  of  the  room. 

The  station,  in  addition  to  furnishing  power  for  the 
company's  entire  city  .system,  also  furnishes  heat  and 
power   for  the   shops. 

Distribution  System. 

The  distribution  system  consists  of  alxnU  67,' _>  miles 
of  cables,  having  3-16-inch  paper  insulation,  protected  by 
a  's-iiich  lead  sheath.  These  cables,  twenty  in  all,  pass 
in  racks  under  the  engine  ro(]m  lloor  o\'er  the  boiler 
room  to  underground  conduits.  The  conduits  are  for 
the  most  part  laid  between  the  tracks  and  are  part  terra 
cotta  an.d  part  cement  ])ipes,  with  a  sheet-iroi,  covering. 
'l"he  latter  have,  however,  proven  very  unsatisfactory 
and  have  given  considerable  troulile,  due  to  corrosion  of 
the  lead  sheaths  of  the  cables.  This  has  been  especially 
marked  through  the  low  jiarts  of  the  city,  and  recently 
about  3.000  lineal  feet  of  terra  cotta  conduit  has  been 
laid  to  take  the  place  of  cement  pipes. 

A  chloride  storage  battery  is  placed  in  the  upper  floor 
of  the  JNIount  Pleasant  car  barn,  at  the  extreme  end  of 
the  Fourteenth  Street  line,  which  is  fed  liy  a  booster. 
This  battery  is  of  320-ampere  discharge  capacity  and 
consists  of  260  cells,  each  cell  having  9  plates  with  a 
tank  capacity  of  17.  It  is  floated  directly  on  the  line 
without  the  intervention  of  a  booster  or  any  rotary  ma- 
chinery, and  has  l)een  found  in  the  two  years  it  has  been 
in  service  to  be  very  economical  to  maintain  and  has 
satisfactorily  served  its  purpose  of  taking  care  of  the 
extreme  temporary  overloads  which  occur  on  this  line. 


HI 

! 

y^;^:.   ^..r^- 
■  .V  ■;«■-     •■      •    ' 

mm- 

-.*-».  '■-.  '.■'■•*v'  -.. ..  ••• 

Standard  Plow— Capital  Traction  Co. 
Fig.  4. 


Electrical    Handbook  113 

Car  Equipment. 

Tliis  company  lias  not  followed  the  practice  of  many 
of  the  American  cities  in  using  long  eight-wheel  cars, 
hut  their  city  equipment  consists  entirely  of  20  to  26- 
foot  cars,  operated  in  trains  of  one  motor  car  and  one 
trailer.  A  complete  equipment  is  carried  of  open  and 
closed  cars,  both  motors  and  trailers,  and  it  has  proven 
quite  satisfactory  on  account  of  the  flexibility  of  the 
service.  Open  trailer  cars  can  be  operated  through  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  mild  winters  Washington 
usually  has.  and  they  are  quite  popular  with  the  road's 
patrons.  This  would,  of  course,  be  impossible  with  sin- 
gle cars,  as  a  complete  open  unit  w^ould  not  be  desired 
or  permitted.  The  trailer  system  also  makes  it  conve- 
nient to  quickly  change  the  service  from  open  to  closed 
cars  at  times  of  heav}-  summer  rains.  It  has  also  been 
found  that  the  train  of  two  light  cars  is  more  economi- 
cal of  power  than  the  heavier  single  cars,  the  average 
consumption  on  the  whole  line  being  1.81  kilowatt-hour 
per  train  mile  at  the  station  switchboard.  A  view  of 
one  of  these  mixed  trains  is  shown  in  Fig.  3. 

All  motor  cars  are  mounted  on  "Lord  Baltimore" 
trucks,  each  truck  being  equipped  with  two  35  horse- 
power G.  E.  1. 000  motors.  All  cars  are  lighted  electri- 
cally and  the  closed  motors  heated  in  the  same  manner. 

One  of  the  most  important  parts  of  the  equipment  of 
the  conduit  electric  system  is  the  device  used  to  convey 
the  electricity  from  the  conductor  barns  to  the  car, 
known  as  the  plow.  The  plow  used  b}^  the  Capital  Trac- 
tion Company  is  the  General  Electric  Company's  Form 
8,  with  several  improvements  suggested  by  experience. 
This  plow  is  shown  in  Fig.  4.  The  two  cast-iron  shoes 
are  pressed  against  the  conductor  rail  by  steel  leaf 
springs.  These  springs  are  supported  by  iron  yokes 
which  are  fastened  to  the  maple  plow  bottom.  This  ma- 
ple and  a  sheet  of  soft  rubber  give  the  necessary  insula- 
tion. The  current  passes  from  the  inner  side  of  the 
shoe  through  a  short  piece  of  lamp  cord  used  as  a  fuse 
to  the  lower  end  of  the  lead.  The  leads  are  continuous 
strands  of  copper  wire  running  from  the  connector  on 


V   ii 


E  lectr  ica  I    Handbook  115 

top  to  the  fuse  at  tlic  1)ottom.  Tliis  wire  is  flattened  out 
and  reinsiilated  wlicre  it  passes  through  the  steel  shank 
plates.  Rcnio\al)le  liankiicd  steel  plates  are  placed  to 
take  the  wear  where  the  shank  passes  hetween  the  slot 
rails.  The  plow  is  hung  nn  two  steel  hangers  attached 
to  the  truck,  and  is  free  to  move  laterally  to  allow  for 
curves,  etc.  Should  the  plow  take  the  wrong  slot  in 
passing  over  a  switch,  it  slips  off  the  end  of  the  hangers, 
the  connectors  pull  loose,  and  the  ])]inv  may  be  removed 
without  seriously  delaying  the  movement  of  cars. 

Shops  and  Barns. 

The  shops  of  the  company  arc  situated,  as  noted  he- 
fore,  directly  opposite  the  power  station  on  the  Chesa- 
peake and  Ohio  Canal.  They  comprise  three  buildings, 
one  of  which  is  a  storage  barn  containing  a  wheel- 
grinder  and  pits  for  removing  wheels  and  overhauling 
and  removing  motors ;  another  contains  the  wood-work- 
ing and  paint  shops,  and  the  third  the  forge  room  and 
machine  shop.  All  motors  are  overhauled  in  the  .shops 
about  once  a  month  while  in  regular  service,  and  all  cars 
are  thoroughly  overhauled  in  all  shops  every  year.  All 
repair  work  is  done  in  these  shops,  and  occasionally  new 
cars  are  built  there. 

Car  service  on  the  city  lines  is  maintained  from  four 
barns,  one  at  each  end  of  the  Pennsylvania  Avenue  line, 
one  at  the  north  end  of  the  Fourteenth  Street  line,  and 
another  at  the  south  end  of  the  Seventh  Street  line. 
The  Georgetown  barn  is  three  stories  high ;  the  other 
three,  two.  All  are  served  by  electrically  operated  car 
elevators  and  have  suitable  rooms  for  the  train  men  and 
shops  for  minor  repairs,  as  w'ell  as  car  storage  facilities. 

The  company's  suburban  line,  running  from  Cincin- 
nati Street  and  Rock  Creek  to  Chevy  Chase  Lake,  is  a 
double-track  overhead  trolley  road  w'ith  center  pole  con- 
struction, fed  by  a  750-kilowatt  station  at  the  northern 
end  of  the  line.  This  station  also  furnishes  lights  for 
the  village  of  Chevy  Chase. 

An  amusement  park  at  the  Chevy  Cha.se  Lake  fur- 
nishes an  attraction  for  excursion  traffic  on  this  line 
during  the   summer  season. 


Electrical     Handbook  J 17 


THE  TELEPHONE  PLANT  OF  WASHINGTON. 

Wlll^.X  the  Washington  telephone  plant  was  first 
constructed,  the  whole  conception  of  the 
scope  of  the  service  was  verj'  different  from 
the  present.  Telephones  were  for  the  use  of 
large  firms,  arid  for  a  few  of  the  very  luxurious  in  their 
residences.  For  the  ordinary  person  it  was  an  emer- 
gency service,  to  be  used  very  much  as  the  telegraph, 
when  it  was  essential  to  communicate  cpiickly.  A  great 
department  of  the  Federal  Government  used  only  two  or 
three  stations,  and,  indeed,  thought  they  needed  no 
more.  Public  pay  stations  were  few  and  far  between, 
and  it  was  often  necessary  to  walk  half  a  mile  to  reach 
one. 

The  plant  required  for  such  a  system  was  extremely 
simple,  judged  by  present  standards.  Ten  years  ago  the 
prospect  of  more  than  one  exchange  for  Washington 
had  not  even  been  contemplated.  Except  for  a  few  of 
the  main  leads,  nothing  but  open  wire  on  pole  lines  was 
thought  of.  Even  after  the  long  distance  lines  were 
opened  to  W^ashington  it  was  not  expected  that  the  aver- 
age station  would  need  to  be  equipped  for  such  service, 
as  the  subscriber  could  go  to  the  long  distance  office  for 
the  very  exceptional  out-of-town  call. 

The  old  carbon-button  or  Blake  transmitter,  with  one 
cell  of  Le  Clanche  battery,  was  in  general  use;  and  the 
line,  except  for  the  short  length  in  ca])le,  was  of  iron 
and  grounded.  The  magneto  switchboard,  w-ith  its 
large  drops  and  jacks,  was  necessarily  of  small  capacity. 
The  drops  were  self-restoring,  however,  that  is,  the 
shutter  was  automaticalh"  closed  when  the  operator  an- 
swered, and  as  late  as  seven  years  ago  this  was  consid- 
ered the  height  of  switchboard  development. 

Within  the  past  decade,  however,  the  whole  concep- 
tion of  the  use  and  place  in  our  life  of  telephone  service 
has  undergone  a  complete  change.  The  business  had 
been  developed  along  the  old  lines  until  the  limit  .seemed 


118  Til  e     W  a  s  h  i  ng  to  n 

.0  be  reached,  and  for  a  time  growth  was  ahnost  ar- 
rested. Then  quite  suddenly  there  was  what  might  be 
called  a  renaissance  in  tlie  telephone  business.  Pioneers 
here  and  there  Ijiazcd  the  way,  and  showed  a  new 
place  for  the  service  in  the  affairs  of  men.  Lower  rate 
schedules  were  developed;  the  old,  inflexible  flat  rates 
were  superseded  by  equitable  message  rate  schedules, 
under  which  each  subscriber  paid  for  what  he  got,  and 
it  became  possible  to  offer  rates  which  would  appeal  to 
the  small  user. 

The  demand  for  telephone  service  then  grew  faster 
than  the  plant  could  be  provided.  The  idea  was  gaining 
ground  that  telephone  service  was  for  all  classes  just  as 
distinctly  as  the  mail  service  or  the  gas  and  water  sup- 
ply. The  man  who  could  not  afford  even  the  bottom 
rate  should  have  access  to  a  pay  station  within  half  a 
block  and  the  privilege  of  calling  for  a  nominal  charge. 
This  new  idea  demanded  an  enormous  and  very  complex 
plant.  A  number  of  exchanges  were  required  with  pro- 
visions for  trunking  between ;  and  as  it  became  imprac- 
ticable to  carry  the  increased  number  of  lines  overhead, 
the  subway  system  had  to  be  greatly  extended  and  en- 
larged. The  old  magneto  station-battery  plant  could  not 
be  adopted  to  meet  the  new  conditions. 

The  engineers,  designers  and  makers  of  apparatus  had 
kept  pace  with  the  development,  and  were  ready  to  fur- 
nish new  equipment  of  wonderfully  improved  character 
and  most  exquisitely  adapted  to  the  purpose  in  hand. 
It  remained,  however,  to  lay  out  a  plant  with  due  regard 
to  present  and  future  needs,  and  then  construct  it ;  and 
all  this  has  taken,  naturally,  a  good  deal  of  time  and 
money.  It  was  necessary  to  plan  as  far  ahead  as  pos- 
sible, and  then  to  build  in  such  a  way  that  no  matter 
how  or  where  the  future  development  might  come,  in 
stations  or  in  traffic,  additions  might  be  made  as  integral 
parts  of  the  existing  system  and  without  sacrificing  any 
part  of  it. 

The  study  made  as  a  basis  for  these  plans  was  most 
thorough  and  very  interesting.  First,  a  large  map  of 
the  city  was  carefully  blocked  off  in  various  colors,  each 
indicating  a  certain  grade  of  business,  residence  or  ofti- 


Electrical    Ha  n  dh  o  o  J:         1J9 

cial  property.  Tlie  mimbor  of  existing  telephones  in 
each  square  was  then  set  down,  and  a  conference  was 
lield  of  a  lialf-do7.en  people,  each  especially  well 
equipped  either  from  a  ])usiness.  a  telephone,  or  a  real 
estate  standpoint.  Xo  determine  the  probable  ratio  of  in- 
crease for  each  s<|uare  during  the  following  ten  years. 
On  the  basis  of  tlie  probable  development  so  ascer- 
tained, assuming  that  24,000  lines  and.  say,  60,000  sta- 
tions would  be  reciuired.  the  city  was  laid  out  in  five  ex- 
change districts  and  u  subway  system  planned  whicii 
would  be  good  for  all  time.  The  conduits  which  have 
already  ])een  Iniilt  in  accordance  with  this  information 
reach  nearly  every  improved  square  in  the  city,  and  in 
all  congested  districts  are  continued  directly  into  the 
buildings,  giving  a  house-to-house  distribution  entirely 
beyond  the  reach  of  storms  or  other  disturbing  influ- 
ences. The  ordinary  practice  in  the  residence  section  is 
to  continue  the  underground  cable  to  a  cable  box  on  a 
stout  pole  in  the  center  of  the  square.  From  here  it  is 
distributed  by  short  spans  of  twisted  weatherproof  wire 
to  the  rear  of  the  houses.  The  short  lengths  of  the 
spans  and  the  fact  that  covered  wire  is  used  make  line 
troubles  almost   unheard-of. 

In  four  of  the  five  city  districts  new  exchange  build- 
ings have  already  been  erected.  Each  has  been  de- 
signed especially  for  central  office  purposes,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  best  telephone  practice.  All  are  of  the 
most  substantial  fireproof  construction,  and  heavy  brick 
walls  have  been  used  in  preference  to  the  modern  steel 
frame  construction.  The  buildings  have  been  designed, 
moreover,  to  l)ear  the  extraordinary  weight  of  terminal 
apparatus,  cables,  generators,  etc.,  on  the  top  floor,  and 
also  to  permit  the  erection  of  additional  stories,  if  the 
growth  of  the  business  should  require  it. 

Unusual  precautions  have  been  taken  to  insure  dry 
walls,  not  only  by  courses  of  asphalted  burlap  in  the 
foundations,  but  also  by  painting  the  inside  with  as- 
phalt and  then  applying  hollow  terra  cotta  furring  be- 
fore plastering.  Each  building  is  amplj'  supplied  with 
well-designed  outside  fire  escapes,  and  fire  protection  is 
everywhere  ])rovided.      There  is  at  least  one  stand-pipe 


V20  T  h  e     Wa  s  h  ing  ton 

extending  to  the  roof  of  each  building.  Normally  the 
stand-pipe  is  connected  with  large  tanks  on  the  roof, 
kept  full  by  electric  pumps,  which  are  automatically 
started  the  instant  the  water  pressure  becomes  reduced. 
Sand  buckets  are  plentifully  supplied  around  the  ex- 
change and  terminal  rooms,  and  elsewhere  in  the  build- 
ing chemical  extinguishers  of  the  most  improved  type 
are  at  every  turn. 

The  main  exchange  builcling.  located  in  aljout  the  cen- 
ter of  the  cit}-,  is  the  last  to  be  completed,  and  contains 
the  company's  general  offices,  as  well  as  the  central  of- 
fice, with  a  capacit}-  of  10.500  lines.  It  is  a  six-story 
and  basement  building,  about  50x150  feet  in  size,  and  is 
built  of  granite,  white  brick  and  terra  cotta.  The  North 
exchange  building,  situated  about  one  and  a  quarter 
miles  north  of  the  Main  exchange,  is  of  about  the  same 
dimensions  and  materials,  except  that  it  is  only  four 
stories  high.  The  East  and  West  exchanges,  as  tl;c 
names  imply,  cover  East  and  West  Washington  re- 
spectively. Each  is  of  two  stories  and  basement,  and  is 
built  of  brick,  with  stone  trimmings. 

The  fifth  central  office,  which  is  not  yet  built,  is 
planned  to  be  located  about  one  mile  north  of  the  pres- 
ent North  office,  on  the  heights,  where  there  is  so  much 
of  present  and  prospective  increase  in  residence  service, 
and  \y here,  the  city  must  push  out  in  the  future. 

A  brief  description  of  the  North  exchange,  which 
seems  in  every  way  a  model  of  central  office  and  engi- 
neering construction,  will  suffice  for  all. 

On  the  first  floor  of  the  building  is  an  up-town  busi- 
ness office,  where  patrons  may  pay  their  bills,  make  ar- 
rangements for  service,  etc.  The  entire  second  floor  is 
used  as  a  terminal  room,  and  its  generous  dimensions, 
with  ample  light  on  three  sides,  make  it  unusually  well 
adapted  to  the  purpose.  The  steel  frames,  racks  and 
cable  runs  were  put  in  for  the  ultimate  capacity  of  the 
switchboard  during  the  construction  of  the  building,  and 
are  bolted  to  the  iron  floor  beams  and  to  the  ceiling 
beams  above ;  they  are  thus  virtually  a  part  of  the  build- 
ing and  will  carry  the  maximum  weight  and  strain  with- 
out sag  or  vibration.     The  12  kilowatt  motor  generators 


Electrical     Handbook         IJ 1 

for  charging  the  storage  hatteries,  and  the  ringing  ma- 
chines, hoth  in  dupHcate,  arc  as  solid  and  free  from 
vibration  as  if  built  on  rock. 

In  the  terminal  room  the  underground  cables  come  up 
through  a  long,  narrow  brick  shaft  along  the  side  wall 
to  the  base  of  the  "main  frame."  In  a  fireproof  trough 
under  the  floor,  each  cable  is  pot-headed  and  twisted 
and  rubber-covered  wire  spliced  on.  These  conductors 
are  then  led  in  a  Inmch  along  an  arrester  strip  on  the 
"main  frame,"  where  provision  is  made  to  carry  to  the 
ground  any  excess  or  foreign  current  which  might 
come  from  the  line.  The  wires  are  here  cross-connected 
— in  other  words,  their  arrangement,  which  was  geo- 
graphical as  they  came  from  the  underground  cables,  is 
changed  to  correspond  with  the  numbers  they  are  as- 
signed in  the  switchboard.  They  are  then  carried  in 
switchboard  cables  over  light  steel  framing  to  the  "in- 
termediate distributing  frame,"  which  permits  the  dis- 
tribution of  lines  for  answering  purposes  among  the 
various  operating  positions  of  the  switchboard  in  such 
a  way  as  to  maintain  a  proper  load  at  each. 

Obviously  the  rate  of  calling  in  any  group  of  lines  is 
subject  to  great  fluctuation,  and  it  cannot  be  expected 
that  the  same  numl)cr  of  lines  which  constitute  a  fair 
load  to-day  may  I)e  a  fair  load  a  month  or  six  months 
hence.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  have  some  method 
of  giving  part  of  the  lines  to  another  operator  to  an- 
swer without  change  of  numbers,  or,  in  other  words, 
without  altering  their  position  in  the  multiple  part  of 
the  board.  This  is  accomplished  through  the  inter- 
mediate. When  it  is  considered  that  a  uniform  degree 
of  high  efficiency  of  operating  is  expected  during  the 
busiest  hour  of  the  busiest  day  in  the  year,  it  can  be 
realized  how  important  it  is  to  provide  a  method  for 
continually  adjusting  the  number  of  the  lines  answered 
from  each  position. 

In  the  terminal  room  are  also  located  the  racks  of 
relays  which  operate  the  various  lamp  signals  in  the 
switchboard ;  tlie  message  registers  which  record  the 
number  of  completed  calls  made  by  each  message  rate 
subscriber :    the    various    generator    units,    and    power 


Electrical     Handbook         123 

switchboard ;  the  storage  battery  which  supplies  all  cur- 
rent for  signalling  the  exchange,  for  operating  the  vari- 
ous switchboard  signals,  and  for  energizing  the  trans- 
mitters at  the  subscribers'  stations ;  and  the  thoroughly 
complete  test  board  of  the  wire  chief  and  his  assistants. 
The  tloor  above  the  terminal  room  is  given  up  to  op- 
erators' quarters,  where  every  provision  which  careful 
thought  can  suggest  is  made  for  their  comfort.  A  large, 
well-ventilated  room  is  provided,  with  individual  lockers 
of  open  metal  work,  in  wliich  each  operator  keeps  her 
wraps  and  belongings,  and  where  she  leaves  her  indi- 
vidual telephone  and  transmitter  when  going  off  duty. 
Across  the  front  of  the  building  is  a  large  lounging  and 
reading  room,  well  provided  with  easy  chairs,  and 
couches.  The  tables  are  furnished  with  the  latest  maga- 
zines, and  the  operators  on  relief  liave  full  opportunity 
to  refresh  themselves  in  mind  and  body.  Adjoining 
this  room  is  a  comfortable  dining  room,  completely 
equipped  with  table  service  and  with  attractive  buffet 
arrangements,  from  which  tea.  coffee  and  milk  are 
served  without  charge.  The  company  has  taken  ac- 
count of  the  trying  nature  of  the  operators'  work,  and 
with  the  realization  of  the  necessity  for  a  contented, 
loyal  body  of  employees,  is  leaving  nothing  undone 
which  could  contribute  to  the  desired  end. 

Another  room  on  this  floor  is  now  being  used  for  an 
operators'  school,  which  is  in  itself  a  very  interesting 
institution.  Of  the  many  applicants  for  the  position  of 
operator,  a  few  of  the  most  promising  are  accepted  as 
students  and  are  given  a  thorough  course  of  theoretical 
and  practical  training  in  this  school.  After  graduation 
they  are  well  equipped  to  take  a  place  at  any  of  the 
company's   switchboards. 

On  the  fourth  floor  is  the  exchange  proper,  and  with 
its  huge  dimensions,  lofty  ceilings  and  abundant  light, 
it  would  be  difficult  to  imagine  a  place  better  adapted  in 
any  particular  for  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  designed. 
The  switchboard,  which  is  planned  for  an  ultimate  of 
10,500  lines,  is  now  equipped  for  4,500.  It  is  of  the 
latest  type  of  "relay"  or  "common  battery"  board,  and 
strikes    one    as    being    almost    human    in    its    workings. 


12^.  Tlie     Washington 

While  frankly  a  manually  operated  board,  it  is  so  nearly 
automatic  in  its  functions  that  the  work  of  the  operator 
has  been  reduced  to  the  mere  act  of  making  the  connec- 
tion with  the  desired  number  and  pressing  the  button. 

At  the  cable  turning  section,  where  the  cables  come  up 
from  the  intermediate  frame,  the  board  starts  around 
the  room  in  two  directions,  the  "A"  board,  or  subscrib- 
■ers'  sections,  proceeding  to  the  left,  and  the  "B"  board, 
or  incoming  trunk  sections,  going  to  the  right.  The  ex- 
tent of  the  '■.\"  sections  will  naturally  depend  upon  the 
number  of  operators'  positions  required  to  answer  the 
full  number  of  lines  provided  for,  which  in  turn  depends 
largely  upon  the  average  of  calling;  but  the  growth  of 
the  '"B"  sections  will  depend  upon  the  development  of 
other  exchanges  and  the  consequent  increase  of  volume 
-of  incoming  traffic. 

The  familiar  principle  of  multiple  switchboards, 
which  requires  that  every  line  shall  appear  in  its  approx- 
imate jack  once  in  every  section,  or  within  the  reach  of 
■every  operator,  tlierc  being  three  operators  to  each  sec- 
tion, naturally  fixes  the  limit  of  size  of  the  switchboard 
in  accordance  with  the  size  of  the  jacks  and  the  com- 
pactness with  which  they  can  be  placed  in  the  board. 
The  smallest  jack  now  in  use  must  be  placed  with  in- 
credible compactness  when  one  considers  that  at  least 
three  wires  must  be  soldered  to  springs  in  the  rear  of 
each,  to  permit  the  operator  to  reach  ten  thousand  of 
them. 

The  process  of  operating,  identical  with  that  in  all 
recent  Bell  exchanges,  is  briefly  as  follows  : 

When  the  telephone  is  lifted  from  the  hook  at  the 
subscribers"  station  a  tiny  lamp  is  lighted  just  above  the 
"answering  jack"  with  which  ii  is  associated.  The  op- 
erator takes  one  of  a  pair  of  flexible  cords  and  inserts 
the  plug  at  the  end  in  the  answering  jack  indicated, 
automatically  e.xtinguishing  the  light,  while  with  her 
other  hand  she  has  thrown  a  "listening  key"  connecting 
her  with  the  calling  party.  In  much  less  time  than  it 
takes  to  tell  it  she  has  ascertained  the  number  wanted, 
tested  the  line  to  see  if  it  was  in  use  by  touching  the  tip 


Electrical    Handbook         12i7 

of  the  other  pUig  to  tlic  rim  of  the  jack  called,  inserted 
the  plug,  pressed  the  ringing  key  in  line  with  the  cord 
nsed.  and  cleared  out  to  handle  another  call. 

In  the  key  shelf,  or  horizontal  part  of  tlie  switch- 
board, there  are  two  supervisory  lamps  for  each  i)air  of 
cords.  When  the  operator  plugged  in  to  the  called  sub- 
scriber's jack,  the  lamp  corresponding  to  that  cord  im- 
mediately lighted  and  remained  so  until  the  called  party 
answered.  When  both  parties  hang  up  their  receivers 
both  supervisory  lamps  burn,  and  the  operator  discon- 
nects both  cords.  If  only  <>nc  lamp  should  light,  the 
operator  would  know  that  while  one  party  was  through 
talking  the  other  still  desired  attention  and  would  .ict 
accordingly. 

Selective  ringing  is  provided  for  two  and  four-party 
lines,  and  the  operator,  by  pressing  the  appropriate  but- 
ton, can  call  any  station  on  the  line  without  ringing  the 
other  bells.  By  an  ingenious  device  the  last  button  in  a 
series  to  be  pressed  is  indicated,  so  that  if  the  operator 
finds  it  necessary  to  ring  again  she  docs  not  have  to  de- 
pend on  her  memory  to  know  wliich  station  on  the  line 
was  wanted. 

When  a  party  in  some  other  exchange  is  asked  for, 
the  operator  presses  a  small  l)utton,  which  connects  her 
through  what  is  known  as  an  "order-up"'  circuit  with 
the  "B"  operator  in  the  called  exchange,  and  repeats  the 
number.  The  "B"  operator  tests  the  line  called  for,  and, 
if  not  in  use.  connects  it  with  an  idle  trunk  line  be- 
tween the  two  exchanges,  at  the  same  time  calling  back 
the  number  of  the  trunk  so  assigned.  The  "A"  operator 
then  connects  the  calling  subscriber  with  the  designated 
trunk,  and  the  connection  is  complete.  The  "B"  op- 
erator presses  the  appropriate  ringing  key.  which  is  held 
down  by  a  magnetic  clutch,  causing  the  bell  at  the  called 
station  to  ring  intermittently  until  the  lelei)hone  is  an- 
swered, when  the  mere  act  of  lifting  the  receiver  off  the 
hook  releases  the  magnetic  clutch  and  stops  the  ringing. 

Abundant  provision  is  made  in  the  exchange  for  the 
manager  and  chief  operator's  desks,  which  are  minia- 
ture switchboards  in  themselves  and  for  the  "informa- 
tion" and  monitor  operators.      .Ml   manner  of  informa- 


Electr  i  c  a  t    Hand  h  o  o  k         127 

tioii  is  kept  posted  up  to  the  hour,  and  all  inquiries  as 
to  new  subscribers,  changed  lines,  toll  calls,  etc.,  are 
promptly  handled.  Records  arc  kept  of  every  station 
alphabetically  according  to  subscribers'  names,  numer- 
ically, according  to  the  call  nmnbers,  and  l)y  street  ad- 
dresses. 

Each  group  of  eight  o])erators  is  in  charge  of  a  super- 
visor, who  is  constantly  on  the  alert  behind  her  group, 
seeing  that  all  calls  are  promptly  handled,  and  taking 
over  from  the  operator  any  troublesome  matter  which 
may  arise.  Tn  charge  of  the  supervisors  is  the  chief 
operator,  who  in  turn  reports  to  the  manager,  who  is 
held  responsible  for  the  efficiency  of  the  exchange  at  all 
times. 

The  company's  outside  plant,  as  already  indicated,  is 
almost  entirely  underground.  The  cables  are  of  the 
standard  paper-insulated,  lead-covered  type,  with  usually 
400  pairs  of  wires  each.  Each  pair  of  wires  is  twisted 
at  different  intervals,  and  the  separate  pairs  are  laid  up 
in  a  spiral  fashion,  the  number  of  turns  in  a  given  length 
being  determined  with  mathematical  accuracy.  Many  of 
the  cables  terminate  in  multiple,  so  that  any  number  of 
conductors  may  be  used  at  any  one  of  the  several  termi- 
nals, thus  requiring  a  minimum  of  idle  plant.  In  some 
sections,  where  the  requirements  arc  still  light,  the  lines 
are  run  in  aerial  cables  of  from  25  to  lOO  pairs,  and 
these  also  open  in  the  multiple  at  various  points,  in  this 
way  requiring  very  little  open  line  even  in  the  outlying 
sections. 

All  station  eiinipment  is  of  the  latest  Bell  type.  A 
very  large  proportion  of  the  stations  are  equipped  with 
desk  stands,  and  this  attractive  and  convenient  form  of 
apparatus  is  seen  wherever  one  goes.  The  desk  tele- 
phones are  usually  wired  as  extension  stations  from 
the  main  telephone,  which  is  centrally  located  for  gen- 
eral use.  It  is  frequently  desired  that  all  calls  shall  be 
received  at  the  main  station,  and  that  the  extension  sta- 
tion shall  only  be  signalled  when  the  individual  there  is 
wanted. 


FAectr  ica  I    Hand  b  o  o  I:         129 

From  one  or  two  extension  telephones  the  service 
natnrally  grows  to  a  private  branch  exchange,  or,  as  a 
recent  writer  termed  it,  "a  satellite  exchange."  In  this 
system  the  principle  of  the  exchange  is  applied  to  the 
subscriber's  premises.  As  many  stations  as  may  be  re- 
quired, on  or  ofif  the  ])remises,  are  wired  to  a  small 
switchboard,  which  in  turn  is  connected  with  the  public 
exchange  by  two  or  more  trunk  lines.  The  whole  is 
ideally  flexible  and  can  l)e  adapted  exactly  to  the  sub- 
scriber's particular  needs  in  every  direction. 

The  operator  at  the  private  branch  exchange  is  one  of 
the  greatest  business  aids  of  the  day.  She  not  only 
facilitates  outgoing  trafiic.  but  acts  as  a  most  admirable 
selector  and  distributor  of  incoming  calls.  The  advan- 
tage of  having  these  calls  always  answered  by  a  cour- 
teous, trained  teleplione  clerk,  instead  of  ]\v  any  one 
who  happens  along,  is  being  more  and  more  generally 
appreciated.  The  internal  traffic  between  the  several 
stations  of  a  private  branch  exchange  is  also  of  very 
great  value  in  the  conduct  of  any  business.  Private 
brancli  exchange  .service  is  seen  everywhere  in  Wash- 
ington. Hotels  and  apartment  houses  are  practically  all 
so  equipped,  and,  indeed,  a  telephone  has  come  to  be  as 
much  expected  in  a  hotel  room  or  in  an  apartment  as 
electric  light  and  steam  heat.  Thirty  per  cent.  (30%)  of 
all  telephones  in  Washington  are  connected  with  private 
branch  exchange  switchboards.  This  proportion  is  ex- 
ceeded in  only  one  city  in  the  world. 

An  interesting  feature  of  the  business  in  Washington 
is  the  .service  supplied  the  Federal  Government.  Fach 
department  has  a  complete  private  branch  exchange  sys- 
tem, designed  especially  to  meet  its  various  and  indi- 
\i(lual  requirements.  In  some  cases  the  situation  is  met 
b}'  a  large  numl)er  of  telephones,  all  connected  to  one 
.'witchboard ;  in  other  departments  there  is  one  main 
switchboard  with  se\eral  subsidiary  switchboards  in  the 
various  bureaus,  each  connected  direct  to  the  exchange 
of  the  telephone  company,  and  all  tied  together  with  in- 
lernal  trunks.  The  residences  of  some  officials  are  con- 
nected with  tlieir  department  boards.  There  are  also 
direct  lines  IrdUi  the  various  private  branch   exchanges 


130  The     Washington 

to  the  office  of  the  long  distance  company,  thus  securing 
direct  connection  for  long  distance  calls.  The  various 
departments  of  the  Government  are  also  connected  with 
•each  other  by  "tie  lines." 

The  result  is  a  great  self-contained  system  of  over 
two  thousand  telephones,  ideally  meeting  every  possible 
demand  for  departmental  and  inter-departmental  com- 
munication, as  well  as  for  local  and  foreign  telephone 
service.  The  President  can  sit  at  his  desk  and  be  in 
instant  communication  with  any  member  of  his  Cab- 
inet or  with  some  one  a  thousand  miles  away.  The 
head  of  a  department  can  confer  in  a  moment  with  his 
lieutenants  in  Washington  or  at  distant  points ;  and 
clear  down  the  line  to  the  lowest  clerk,  business  can 
be  e.Kpedited  in  a  way  which  was  not  dreamed  of  ten 
years  ago.  It  might  almo.st  be  said  that  the  telephone 
wires  are  the  nerves  of  the  Government,  enabling  an 
impulse  at  the  head  to  be  felt  instantly  at  the  very  ex- 
tremity. 

For  the  stranger,  for  the  passer-by,  for  the  man  who 
cannot  afford  service,  pay  stations  are  everywhere,  vary- 
ing in  facilities  from  a  single  telephone  in  a  corner 
drug  store  or  grocery,  attended  by  the  proprietor,  to  the 
large  installation  in  hotels,  railway  stations  and  other 
public  places,  equipped  with  several  lines  and  booths, 
and  attended  b\-  tb.e  company's  operators  and  messen- 
gers. 

In  the  country  surrounding  Washington  a  number  of 
small  exchanges  have  been  established,  with  the  object 
of  completely  covering  the  telephone  field  not  onh-  by 
meeting  everj-  present  demand,  but  bj"  placing  facilities 
in  advance  of  the  requirements.  To  exchanges  located 
outside  of  the  District  of  Columbia  a  small  toll  charge 
is  made.  No  additional  charge  is  made,  however,  for 
calls  to  any  exchange  located  in  the  District.  Ample  fa- 
cilities are  provided  for  talking  with  all  long  distance 
points,  and  thoroughly  efficient  service  at  moderate 
charges  has  made  the  familiar  phrase,  ''Don't  travel — 
telephone,"  a  household  word. 


Electrical    Handbook         131 

The  company's  rate  scheme  has  gone  tlirough  a  grad- 
ual evolution,  and  now  seems  as  reasonable  and  flexible 
as  can  be  expected  under  the  present  conditions.  Busi- 
ness service  is  rendered  only  on  the  message  basis,  now 
universally  regarded  as  the  one  equitable  plan.  The 
rate  per  call  decreases  as  the  number  increases  up  to 
four  thousand  messages  a  year,  which  is  considered  the 
maximum  number  of  out-going  calls  which  can  be  sent, 
with  due  regard  to  the  use  of  the  line  for  incoming 
service.  Flat  rates  are  still  offered  residences,  as  the 
use  of  residence  telephones  is  never  excessive,  and  there 
is  no  danger  of  the  line  being  used  continually  for  out- 
going traffic  to  the  exclusion  of  incoming  calls. 

The  Chesapeake  and  Potomac  Telephone  Company  is 
working  constantly  and  with  unceasing  energj'  to  sup- 
ply a  thoroughly  efficient  service  at  reasonable  rates  for 
every  possible  demand,  and  at  the  same  time  it  is  dili- 
gently preparing  amply  for  all  future  requirements,  no 
matter  how  rapidly  they  may  develop. 

The  American  Telephone  and  Telegraph  Company 
(long  distance)  has  its  Washington  offices  at  the  corner 
of  Fifteenth  and  F  streets  northwest. 

At  these  offices  the  company  maintains,  in  addition  to 
its  operating  room,  a  group  of  paj-  station  telephones, 
each  telephone  in  a  sound-proof  booth,  for  the  use  of 
the  general  public. 

The  company  also  has  trunk  lines  connecting  its 
switchboard  with  the  different  exchanges  of  the  Chesa- 
peake and  Potomac  Company,  thus  enabling  the  sub- 
scribers to  the  Chesapeake  and  Potomac  .service  to  get 
long  distance  connections  at  their  own  telephone  sta- 
tions. 

August  19,  1904. 


U.  S.  Patent  Office. 


Electrical    II  a  n  d  b  o  o  k         133 


ELECTRICITY  IN  THE   ARMY. 

VUX  MOL'I'KJ-:  lias  said  tliat  war  is  tlic  only 
science  that  lays  under  tribute  all  other  sci- 
ences. Among  all  the  other  sciences  used  in 
the  art  of  war,  possibly  none  has  had  as  ex- 
tended an  application  in  recent  days  as  that  of  elec- 
tricity. The  electrical  service  of  the  army  is  divided 
into  the  service  of  communication,  which  includes  all 
devices  and  apparatus  for  transmittin;^  intelligence — the 
cable,  the  telegrai)h,  the  telei)h()ne,  and  wireless  teleg- 
raphy. In  the  fortifications  light  is  needed  for  the 
magazines  and  galleries,  searchlights  to  illuminate  the 
channels  and  cover  the  torpedo  fields  and  for  night  sig- 
nalling, and  power  to  move  the  heavy  guns,  work  the 
shot-hoists  and  all  auxiliary  machinery  in  the  compli- 
cated plant  of  a  modern  fortification.  After  the  various 
appliances  and  plants  have  been  installed  by  the  dif- 
ferent supply  bureaus  of  the  service,  the  artillery  is 
charged  with  their  operation  and  with  the  working  of 
the  submarine  mine  fields.  The  Engineer  Corps  of  the 
army  constructs  all  the  gun  emplacements  and  mining 
casemates,  builds  and  installs  the  power  plants,  and 
furnishes  motors  and  accessories  for  operating  the  shot- 
hoists  and  the  searchlights.  The  Ordnance  Depart- 
ment, in  addition  to  furnishing  the  armament,  provides 
motor-controlled  systems  for  elevating  and  training  the 
guns  in  azimuth ;  and  the  Signal  Corps  of  the  army 
provides  all  the  complicated  apparatus  for  the  system  of 
fire  control  and  direction  of  the  liatteries  in  addition 
to  its  work  of  being  charged  with  the  general  system  of 
field  communication  for  the  army.  The  engineering 
conditions  under  which  electricity  is  applied  are  essen- 
tially the  same  as  in  commercial  practice,  but  are  prose- 
cuted under  conditions  which  of  necessity  must  be  more 
exacting  and  difficult.  Efficiency  and  certainty  of  op- 
eration outweigh  in  the  problem  of  design  the  cost  of 
installation    and    economy    of    operation.      Many    ingc- 


181^  The     Washington 

nious  means  and  metliods  of  the  application  (jf  elec- 
tricity to  the  military  service  have  been  devised  from 
time  to  time,  but  a  large  number  proved  of  little  value, 
as  they  have  been  either  too  complicated  or  too  deli- 
cate. No  device  or  apparatus  which  cannot  survive 
lack  of  attention  and  skilled  supervision,  exposure  to 
weather,  rough  handling  in  transportation,  or  the  ef- 
fect of  the  blast  of  heavy  guns,  will  prove  of  value  at 
the  critical  moment  of  its  use  at  the  time  of  actual 
battle. 

Unfortunately  for  efficiency,  the  technical  corps  of 
an  army  is  a  very  small  proportion  of  its  total  strength, 
and  the  pay  of  the  enlisted  men  is  not  sufficient  to  prove 
an  inducement  to  men  skilled  in  the  use  of  electricity, 
who  are  much  better  paid  for  the  same  work  in  civil 
life,  to  enlist  in  our  service.  One  of  the  greatest  lim- 
itations of  its  development  in  the  service  has  been  lack 
of  appreciation  by  Congress  of  its  importance,  and  the 
conseciuent  lack  of  necessary  appropriations. 

The  Signal  Corps  of  the  army  is  charged  with  tiie 
construction,  repair  and  operation  of  military  telegraph 
lines,  and  the  duty  of  collecting  and  transmitting  infor- 
mation for  the  army  by  telegraph  or  otherwise. 

While  the  importance  and  value  of  I'apid  means  -^f 
communication  in  the  commercial  world  have  been  dem- 
onstrated by  the  experience  of  over  one-half  a  century. 
and  the  enormous  amounts  of  capital  invested  in  the 
telegraph,  telephone  and  cable,  such  means  of  com- 
munication are  absolutely  essential  to  success  in  mod- 
ern war.  where  time  is  one  of  the  most  important  of 
controlling  factors.  Electricity  is  the  most  potent  agent 
in  our  control  to  effect  such  a  saving  of  time. 

The  service  of  communication  in  the  Signal  Corps  is 
divided  into  field  and  fortress  work.  For  field  work 
the  telegraph,  telephone,  cable  and  wireless  telegraphy 
are  now  employed. 

The  Signal  Corps  of  the  army  is  at  present  operating 
a  system  of  3,000  miles  of  land  line  and  2.000  miles  of 
cable  in  the  Philippine  Islands.  1,540  miles  of  land  line 
which  have  been  constructed  in  the  past  two  years  in 
face  of  the  tremendous  climatic  and  topographical   dif- 


K  lectrical    II  a  n  d  h  o  o  k         135 

llctilties  of  A!ask;i,  600  miles  of  cable  whicli  connects 
the  Alaska  system  with  the  United  States,  and  opened 
on  the  17th  of  Angiist  of  this  year  a  wireless  station 
across  Norton  Sound,  which  connects  St.  Michael  with 
Cape  Nome.  The  Signal  Corps  has  developed  a  wire- 
less system  of  its  own.  Beginning  in  1900.  it  had  in 
operation  the  first  successful  system  in  tlie  United 
States,  and  has  succeeded  in  working  the  distance  be- 
tween St.  Michael  and  Cape  Nome,  no  miles,  after  sev- 
eral failures  of  the  commercial  companies. 

In  the  .American  armies,  both  of  the  North  and  the 
South,  in  the  war  of  186 1  to  1865,  was  the  first  applica- 
tion of  the  telegraph  under  war  conditions.  The  ad- 
vantages and  results  proved  so  satisfactory  that  nearly 
all  of  the  foreign  ])owers  have  followed  our  methods, 
and  the  present  modern  system  of  field  communication 
is  but  an  amplification  of  the  results  obtained  in  that 
war.  taking  advantage  of  the  engineering  progress  and 
the  recent  developments  in  the  arts  of  telegraphy,  tele- 
phony and  cable  working. 

The  telephones  used  in  fortress  service  are  modifica- 
tions in  design  alone  of  the  standard  commercial  types. 
Portability,  simplicity,  and  mechanical  strength  are  the 
essential  features  covering  the  design  of  all  field  tele- 
graph and  telephone  apparatus. 

While  great  progress  has  recently  been  made  in  the 
application  of  wireless  telegraphy  for  the  exchange  of 
messages  over  water,  its  value  for  land  communication, 
except  in  very  exceptional  cases,  is  quite  problematical. 
The  distances  which  as  yet  have  been  covered  in  land 
working  are  of  comparatively  short  length,  and  its  cer- 
tainty of  operation  without  interference  is  as  yet  un- 
proved. The  existing  methods  of  communication  have 
proved  sufficient,  especially  as  a  field  line,  under  ordi- 
nary circumstances,  may  be  erected  at  the  rate  of 
from  one  to  three  miles  an  hour,  depending  upon  the 
character  of  the  ground.  Whenever  absolute  syntonic 
working  is  achieved  and  interference  by  the  enemy  can 
be  prevented,   wireless   telegraphy  may  have  a   valuable 


136  T  lie     W  a  s  hinrjio  n 

field  on  land  in  the  futnrc.  but,  at  the  present  outlook, 
it  is  much  more  suited  to  the  operations  afloat  than 
ashore. 

Before  the  outbreak  of  the  war  with  Spain  the  cable 
operations  of  the  Signal  Corps  were  confined  to  main- 
taining the  limited  systems  of  cable  communication  be- 
tween the  various  forts  in  the  harbors  of  this  country. 
When  the  expedition  arrived  off  the  coast  of  Cuba,  near 
Santiago,  the  French  cable  leading  to  that  point  was 
cut,  and,  to  avoid  delicate  questions  of  neutrality,  the 
first  war  cable  ever  laid  by  our  government  was  run 
from  Guantanamo  to  Siboney  by  the  Signal  Corps  and 
connected  with  the  military  line  to  Shafter's  headquar- 
ters, so  that  the  White  House  was  only  twenty  minutes 
in  time  away  from  the  firing  line  in  an  enem>'s  country. 

As  soon  as  the  Philippine  Islands  were  occupied, 
inter-island  communication  became  so  essential  that  the 
Signal  Corps  was  called  upon  to  take  up  the  question 
of  deep-sea  calile  engineering.  Apart  from  its  value  as 
a  means  of  communication,  the  establishment  of  the 
Philippine  cable  system  gave  the  American  manufac- 
turers an  opportunity  to  engage  in  the  production  of 
deep-sea  cable,  and  has  resulted  in  the  establishment  of 
such  plants  as  will  in  future  enable  us  to  obtain  at  home 
this  most  important  war  material,  and  not  place  the 
government  at  the  mercy  of  foreign  producers,  whose 
friendly  interest  cannot  always  be  counted  upon. 

In  the  earlier  emplacements  and  batteries  designed  for 
sea-coast  defense  no  provision  was  made  for  using  elec- 
tricity, not  because  the  desirability  of  its  use  was  not 
considered  or  understood,  but  from  a  desire  to  mount 
as  many  guns  at  various  localities  as  possible,  using  the 
very  limited  appropriations  received  from  year  to  year 
for  this  purpose  rather  than  for  purposes  not  absolutely 
necessary.  As  the  works  for  defense  advanced,  small 
available  balances  were  expended  for  lighting  batteries 
already  completed  or  nearly  so.  Where  the  emplace- 
ments offered  available  room,  such  plants  were  installed 
in  the  battery;  when  such  was  not  the  case,  small 
power-houses  were  constructed  near  the  batteries  for 
the  purpose,   and  in   some  cases  two   or  more   batteries 


Electrical    Handbook         137 

were  lighted  from  the  same  plant,  hut  this  was  rather 
unusual.  Such  plants  were  necessarily  small,  operated 
in  some  cases  hy  steam  power,  when  the  smokestack  or 
steam  escapement  could  give  no  possihle  clue  to  an  en- 
emy, hut  in  the  majority  of  cases  they  were  operated  hy 
a  gas  engine.  The  lamps  ranged  in  voltage  from  80  to 
100;  generators,  switchhoards.  etc.,  were  arranged  to 
suit  the  particular  conditions  at  the  battery  under  con- 
sideration and  the  money  available.  These  plants  were 
provided  with  a  small  storage  battery  as  a  reserve,  to 
obviate  the  necessity  of  operating  the  entire  plant  every 
time  the  lights  were  desired,  and  in  their  entirety  were 
so  simple  that  an  intelligent  enlisted  man  was  able  to 
operate  them. 

The  number  of  such  plants  installed  was  compara- 
tively small,  and  the  suliject  had  been  regarded  as 
rather  in  an  experimental  stage,  but  sufficient  experience 
had  l)een  had  to  warrant  a  serious  consideration  of  the 
sul)ject,  with  a  view  to  applying  electricity  in  all  gun 
batteries  for  furnishing  light  and  also  for  supplying 
power  to  raise  the  projectiles  of  the  larger  calibred  guns 
from  tiie  level  of  the  magazines  or  shot  rooms  to  the 
gun  platforms.  Thus  far,  it  must  be  understood,  the 
emplacement  lighting  and  the  power  for  operating  the 
ammunition  hoists  were  alone  considered,  so  that  the 
conditions  that  such  installations  were  designed  to  meet 
were :  Intermittent  service,  inexpert  and  non-contin- 
uous attendance,  and  exposure  of  the  generator  and 
switchboard  apparatus  to  the  moisture  of  the  emplace- 
ments, since  complete  protection  against  all  kinds  of 
fire  from  a  hostile  fleet  was  advisable. 

While  centralization  was  considered  desirable,  it  was 
not  to  be  carried  beyond  the  limits  within  which  the 
standard  voltages  of  all  parts  of  the  system  could  be 
maintained  with  a  reasonable  expenditure  of  copper,  so 
at  some  posts  where  the  batteries  were  considerable 
distances  apart  there  might  be  two  or  more  plants. 
The  power-houses  were  to  be  in  one  of  the  batteries, 
if  room  were  available,  or  in  a  bomb-proof  structure 
built    for   the   purpose   and    to    be    divided;     For   steam 


138  The      W  a  shin  (J  to  n 

plants,  into  rooms  for  l)oilcrs.  for  engines  and  genera- 
tors, and  for  accumulators ;  for  oil  engines,  into  rooms 
for  engine  and  dynamo,  for  cooling  tanks,  if  required, 
and  for  accumulators.  The  oil  engine  has  given  con- 
siderable trouble  where  used,  because  the  engine  did 
not  accommodate  itself  quickly  to  fluctuations  in  the 
load,  and  on  account  of  the  impossibility  of  securing 
men  in  the  immediate  vicinity  competent  to  take  care 
of  the  engine  and  to  make  repairs  in  case  of  an  acci- 
dent or  injury.  Consequently  the  steam  plant  was  ad- 
vocated. 

The  considerations  governing  the  problem  are  as  fol- 
lows : 

1.  The  greatest  probability  that  the  plant  would  be 
ready  for  service  at  any  future  time,  having  in  view 
simplicity  of  design  and  freedom  from  deterioration. 

2.  Uniformity  of  methods  of  operation  and  of  meth- 
ods of  construction,  so  far  as  the  latter  involved  the 
former. 

3.  Econoni}'  of  operation. 

4.  Economy  of  first  cost. 

5.  High  commercial  efficiency. 

A  vertical  boiler  and  a  generating  set.  consisting  of 
a  vertical  high-speed  engine  direct-connected  to  a  direct 
current,  compound-wound,  multipolar  dynamo,  the  en- 
gine and  dynamo  resting  on  a  common  bed-plate,  are 
adopted  for  all  future  installations.  Reserves  in  the 
form  of  accumulators  \yere  installed  in  all  batteries  of 
6-inch  calibre  guns  or  greater,  their  capacity  to  be  de- 
termined by  the  lighting  load  only,  without  reference 
to  the  power  load  represented  by  motor-driven  ma- 
chinery, as  the  hand-operating  devices  are  in  themselves 
a  satisfactory  reserve.  Reserves  for  the  batteries  to  the 
smaller  guns  are  made  portable.  The  reserves  are 
distributed  so  that  a  single  accident  or  injury  will  not 
disable  both  the  generator  and  the  reserves  at  the  same 
time,  and  also  in  order  that  any  injury  to  outside  wir- 
ing leads  to  the  central  generating  plant  could  not  dis- 
able the  reserves.  Under  these  conditions  the  reserves 
are  distributed  among  the  various  batteries,  the  reserve 


Electrical      Handbook         139 

for  eacli  battery  beiiiy  sufficient  in  capacity  for  the 
lighting  load  of  the  particular  battery  with  which  it 
was  connected. 

While  uniformity  is  considered  desirable  in  all  parts 
of  the  installation,  it  is  the  general  opinion  that  the 
identical  arrangement  and  operation  of  all  switchboards 
is  so  very  desirable  that  it  will  be  insisted  upon  in  all 
future  constructions.  The  chief  reciuirements  are  a  dry 
and  clean  situation,  high  insulation  and  protective  ap- 
pliances, and  the  reduction  of  the  number  of  manipula- 
tions required  to  the  lowest  possible  limit. 

Overhead  wires  are  advocated  wherever  they  can  be 
oI)scured  from  the  enemy's  view,  and  for  this  purpose 
ordinary  weather-proof  wire  WMth  high-grade  insulators 
on  stout  poles  is  the  practice.  Tf  the  conditions  of  the 
ground  are  such  tiiat  an  aerial  line  cannot  be  concealed 
from  view,  tlie  cables  are  placed  underground,  carried 
in  well-laid  vitrified  conduit  at  a  depth  sufficient  to 
give  ample  cover. 

The  importance  of  the  searchlight  up  to  1901  had  not 
been  fully  appreciated,  and  though  they  were  provided 
at  the  various  defenses  for  the  purpose  of  guarding  the 
mine  fields  against  a  night  attack,  their  use  in  connec- 
tion with  the  batteries  had  received  but  little  considera- 
tion. As  a  result  of  maneuvers,  the  necessity  of  search- 
lights as  an  adjunct  of  defense  was  established  and  an- 
other factor  was  introduced.  Future  plants  would  have 
to  furnisli  sufficient  power  not  only  for  emplacement 
work,  but  also  for  searchlights,  and  this  addition  re- 
quired an  increase  in  the  capacity  of  the  machines  to 
meet  the  greater  demand. 

Thus  far  the  plants  installed  were  used  for  emplace- 
ment work  only,  the  storage  batteries  were  charged  and 
discharged  at  stated  intervals  and,  as  noted  above,  the 
service  was  intermittent.  The  plants  were  in  the  hands 
of  the  Artillery  Corps,  and  the  officers  desired  to  avail 
themselves  of  these  plants  for  lighting  their  quarters 
and  posts,  thereby  insuring,  by  their  constant  use,  bet- 
ter care.  .\s  a  result  the  War  Deparement  authorized 
the   use   of   such   plants,   if  of  sufficient   size   to   do   this 


14-0  Tlie      Wa  sliington 

work,  by  the  Quartermaster's  Department  when  author- 
ized by  the  Chief  of  Engineers,  "provided  that  the  needs 
of  defense  shall  have  precedence  over  post  lighting 
or  power  supply  in  any  case  in  which  both  uses  are 
simultaneously  desired."  It  was  further  ordered  that 
in  future,  when  funds  permitted,  the  Engineer  Depart- 
ment should  construct  such  ducts,  service  wires,  etc.,  as 
might  be  necessar\'  to  deliver  current  to  the  buildings 
and  to  the  exterior  lights.  The  Quartermaster's  De- 
partment was  to  wire  the  buildings,  furnish  the  exterior 
lamps  and  to  supply  all  plants  used  for  post  lighting 
with  the  necessary  materials  and  funds  for  their  repair 
and  preservation.     A  third  service  was  thereby  imposed. 

The  Quartermaster's  Department  and  the  Artillery 
Corps  desired  for  such  lighting  of  posts  low  potential 
service  throughout,  mainly  on  the  ground  of  simplicity 
and  because  of  the  character  of  labor  that  was  to  be 
employed  in  operating  the  plant ;  a  centrally-located 
plant,  due  consideration  being  had  to  protection  against 
hostile  fire,  accessibility  for  supplies,  etc. :  that  the  plant 
be  sufficiently  large  for  doing  all  the  work  connected 
with  the  fortifications,  and  alternateh'  for  post  and 
building  lighting  (in  other  words,  the  larger  of  these 
two  services  would  govern  the  size,  assuming  direct- 
current  machines  to  be  used)  ;  that  the  generator  unit 
be  subdivided,  thereby  providing  two  engines  and  gen- 
erators, so  that  in  case  of  injury  to  either  half  the  other 
would  be  available  for  the  more  necessary  purposes; 
and.  finall\%  that  all  wires  be  underground  rather  than 
overhead,  in  order  to  reduce  the  cost  of  maintenance. 
With  these  additional  services  the  original  conditions 
were  changed. 

The  fullest  possible  electrical  demand  at  any  military 
post  will  embrace,  therefore  : 

1.  Searchlight   service. 

2.  Emplacement  service. 

3.  Garrison  service. 

And  the  engineer  officer  must  design  his  plant  for 
these  three  services. 

The  searchlight  service  requires  current  for  a  number 
of  searchlights  to  be  used  in  conjunction  with  the  bat- 


Electrical     Handbook  1^1 

teries  placed  in  tlieir  vicinity.  The  nunibcr  and  size  of 
these  lights  for  any  particular  post  is  definitely  known 
in  advance. 

The  fortitication  service  requires  current  for  lights 
in  the  various  rooms  of  each  emplacement,  on  each  gun- 
platform,  in  the  range-finding  stations ;  current  for 
power  to  work  the  motors  for  ammunition  service,  for 
transferring,  elevating  and  depressing  the  guns  and  to 
operate  a  machine  shop  for  minor  repairs  to  the  guns 
and  carriages,  and,  finally,  current  for  the  recently 
adopted  telautograph  system  connecting  the  range- 
finding  stations  with  each  other  and  with  their  re- 
spective batteries. 

The  garrison  service  requires  current  for  lighting  the 
grounds  and  buildings,  including  barracks,  quarters,  hos- 
pitals, store  houses,  etc..  which  may  be  in  close  prox- 
imity to  the  batteries  or  at  considerable  distance  from 
them,  depending  on  the  size  and  configuration  of  llio 
reservation. 

In  general,  the  use  of  aerial  mains  and  branclu-;  for 
garrison  lighting,  in  conformity  with  the  prevailing  prac- 
tice of  low  potential  current  distribution  in  all  but  the 
largest  cities,  is  regarded  as  feasible  in  cases  where  un- 
derground mains  would  be  unduly  expensive. 

A  system  of  submarine  mines  usually  involves  sta- 
tionary torpedoes  planted  under  water,  anchors  fcr 
holding  them  in  position,  cables  for  connecting  them 
electrically  with  the  shore,  and  operating  apparatus  in 
a  sheltered  position  on  shore. 

By  far  the  greater  part  of  all  submarine  mines  are 
electrically  operated  from  the  shore.  This  follows  di- 
rectly from  a  consideration  of  the  conditions  to  Le  met 
in  devising  a  system  of  mines.  It  is  very  desirable  for 
a  mine  to  explode  automatically  when  struck  by  a  hos- 
tile vessel ;  but  it  is  equally  desirable  for  it  not  to  ex- 
plode if  it  is  struck  by  a  friendly  vessel  :  the  defense 
should  also  be  able  to  explode  the  mines  at  will  from 
the  shore,  in  case  a  hostile  vessel  comes  near;  but  seems 
likely  to  miss  them.  All  these  things  are  rendered  pos- 
sible by  mines  electrically  operated  from  the  shore. 


14-2  The      Washington 

Coming  new  to  the  electrical  arrangements,  if  firing 
were  bj'  judgment  alone,  nothing  would  be  needed  but  a 
circuit  from  the  firing  battery  through  the  detonators 
in  the  torpedo  to  earth,  with  a  firing  key  in  the  case- 
mate. Even  very  defective  insulation  would  not  inter- 
fere with  the  workings  of  the  system,  if  the  battery  was 
enduring  and  sufiicientlj-  powerful.  It  would  interfere 
with  the  daily  tests,  however,  because  of  the  variations 
in  resistance  which  would  occur  even  if  no  leaks  or 
other  defects  developed  in  the  torpedo  itself.  If  tiring 
is  by  contact  alone,  the  necessarj-  arrangements  are  a 
little  more  complex. 

In  order  to  admit  of  daily  electrical  tests — which 
must  include  the  circuit  through  the  detonators  to  be 
of  any  value — -there  must  be  a  continuous  circuit 
through  the  torpedo:  it  must  be  of  high  resistance; 
so  that  even  if  the  tiring  batterj-  is  on.  it  cannot  fire  the 
mine.  There  must  be  a  circuit-closer  in  series  with  the 
detonators,  and  in  parallel  with  the  high  resistance. 
When  the  mine  is  struck,  the  circuit-closer  acts,  and 
opens  up  a  circuit  of  lower  resistance  through  the  de- 
tonators. It  is  assumed  that  the  detonators  are  of  the 
tj'pe  having  a  continuous  bridge  of  fine  wire,  surround- 
ed by  some  fulminating  substance,  and  designed  for  a 
relatively  large  current  under  moderate  e.  m.  f.  This  is 
the  most  certain  and  reliable  form,  and  is  always  easy 
to  obtain.  If  the  firing  battery  is  on.  the  torpedo  should 
explode  when  the  circuit-closer  acts. 

It  is  desirable,  however,  to  know  whether  a  torpedo 
is  struck,  or  whether  its  circuit-closer  acts  from  any 
other  cause,  even  if  the  mine  is  not  to  be  fired.  ^lore- 
over,  it  is  objectionable  to  keep  the  cables  under  such 
high  voltage  as  is  necessary  in  a  firing  battery.  It 
therefore  becomes  desirable  to  have  another  battery  of 
very  constant  e.  m.  f.  always  on  the  circuit.  Its  e.  m.  f. 
and  all  the  resistances  in  circuit  should  be  so  propor- 
tioned that  normallj-  a  tiny  current  is  always  flowing; 
but  when  a  circuit-closer  acts,  this  current  should  in- 
crease to  such  a  point  that  it  will  drop  a  signal,  show- 
ing to  which  triple  group  the  torpedo  belongs,  and  also 
close  ihe  circuit  ol   the  firing  batterv  through  the  cor- 


Electrical     Handbook  l^-J 

resijonding  cal)le  core.  In  case  the  torpedo  is  fired, 
tlic  explosion  may  cause  tlie  circuit-closers  of  neighbor- 
ing  mines  to  act.  and  tliu^  the  whole  system  might  go 
up,  seriatim.  To  prevent  this,  some  device  is  needed 
which  will  allow  the  firing  current  to  flow  long  enough 
to  e.xplode  certainly  the  mine  that  is  struck,  hut  which 
will  break  it  immediately  thereafter,  and  keep  it  broken 
long  enough  for  neighboring  mines  to  right  themselves. 
It  should  be  remarked  here  that  if  ground  mines  are 
used  for  automatic  tiring,  the  circuit-closer  must  be 
carried  in  a  buoy,  similar  in  form  to  a  buoyant  torpedo, 
anchored  to  the  ground  mine,  and  having  an  electrical 
connection  with  it ;  so  that,  with  ground  mines,  the  re- 
quirements are  the  same  as  with  buoyant  mines. 

It  will  readily  be  seen  that  to  accomplish  all  the  above 
objects  a  more  or  less  complicated  set  of  apparatus  is 
required.  It  is  a  good  plan  so  to  arrange  the  signal 
drops  that  when  they  fall  they  will  close  a  bell  circuit, 
thus  causing  a  bell  to  ring  continuously  until  the  signal 
is  raised:  it  is  also  well  for  the  device  which  cuts  off 
the  firing  battery  after  an  explosion  to  ring  a  bell  as 
long  as  the  firing  circuit  is  open  ;  this  gives  reasonable 
assurance  that  a  mine  has  exploded,  even  if  in  the  noise 
of  a  battle  the  explosion  itself  is  not  heard;  pilot  lights 
would  do  as  well  as  a  bell.  It  is  also  well  to  have  a 
very  feeble  battery  for  testing  purposes  only;  thus  it 
will  be  already  seen  that  there  may  be  as  many  as  five 
separate  circuits  to  provide  for  in  the  operating  case- 
mate. In  addition  there  may  be  one  more ;  if  a  tor- 
pedo is  struck  and  fired,  the  end  of  the  cable  leading  to 
it  will  form  an  earth  which,  if  not  cut  out,  might  be 
sufficiently  good  to  keep  throwing  the  firing  battery  on ; 
it  would  so  alter  the  resistances  as  to  interfere  seriously 
with  the  proper  working  of  the  system,  at  any  rate.  At 
the  triple  junction-box,  a  fuse  could  be  inserted,  able 
to  carry  the  firing  current,  but  susceptible  of  being 
blown  by  a  more  powerful  one  to  be  applied  as  soon  as 
the  other  mines  of  the  group  have  righted  themselves. 
If  now  we  assume  that  a  small  engine  and  dynamo  are 


7.^4  ^'^^  ^      W  a  s  Ji  i  n  g  1 0  n 

used  in  connection  with  storage  batteries  to  supply  cur- 
rent to  the  various  circuits,  it  will  readily  be  seen  that 
the  switchboard  proljJem  in  the  casemate  is  not  a  sim- 
ple one. 

If,  in  addition  to  automatic  tiring,  it  is  desired  to  use 
judgment  firing,  it  should  be  possible  to  switch  out  the 
high  resistance  in  the  mine,  or  else  have  this  resistance 
in  the  form  of  the  primary  of  an  induction  coil,  with 
additional  detonators  in  its  secondary-  circuit;  in  this 
case,  an  intermittent  or  alternating  current  of  high 
potential  and  small  volume  flowing  in  the  primary 
would  induce  a  firing  current  in  the  secondary.  A 
whole  triple  group  would  then  be  fired,  and  the  corre- 
sponding core  of  the  multiple  cable  would  be  detached 
from  the  operating  apparatus  altogether,  until  such  time 
as  the  mines  could  be  replaced. 

In  purely  automatic  firing,  the  high  resistance  might 
be  omitted  altogether,  but  then  a  break  in  the  cable  core 
would  give  the  same  indication  as  a  mine  in  norm.il 
condition;  and  the  torpedo  itself  might  be  filled  witn 
water  and  sunk  to  the  bottom  without  the  fact  being 
discovered. 

The  daily  tests  consist  in  measuring  the  resistances 
of  the  various  circuits  and  testing  all  movable  parts  in 
the  operating  casemate.  Damage  to  the  system  always 
affects  these  tests,  and  the  expert  electrician  in  charge 
must  learn  to  infer  from  his  tests  what  is  the  probable 
nature  of  the  damage. 

It  will  readily  be  seen  that  except  for  purely  judg- 
ment firing,  the  insulation  resistance  of  cables  and  joints 
must  be  very  high,  and  must  remain  so.  Details  of  ap- 
paratus actualh-  in  use  have  been  omitted,  because  they 
are  classed  as  confidential :  but  enough  has  been  said  to 
show  to  an  electrical  engineer  that  submarine  mining 
presents  some  problems  that  demand  serious  attention. 
Not  the  least  of  these  is  the  problem  of  junction-boxes 
which  will  allow  of  rapid  jointing  work  of  a  quality 
sufficiently  good  to  withstand  submersion  in  sea  water 
for  months  at  a  time.  Another  serious  problem  is  the 
cable  itself.  It  takes  time  to  make  it.  If  it  is  kept  in 
store,  either  wet  or  dry,  the  insulation  becomes  brittle 


Electrical     Handbook  7.^.7 

and  when  the  cable  is  unwound  frr)ni  tlie  reels,  in  lay- 
ing, the  insulation  cracks.  Hitherto  the  cable  used  for 
this  purpose  has  been  insulated,  taped,  and  armored. 
While  the  work  has  been  of  a  high  grade,  it  seems  to  .some 
of  the  best  authorities  the  army  must  soon  come  to  the 
use  of  cable  having  a  lead  covering  outside  of  the  in- 
sulation and  steel  wire  armor  outside  of  the  lead. 
Then,  as  long  as  the  lead  is  intact,  cracks  in  the  insula- 
tion will  be  of  no  consequence.  But  this  form  of  cable 
again  will  be  heavier,  harder  to  handle,  more  difficult 
to  splice,  and  considerably  more  expensive  than  the  ar- 
mored cable  without   the  lead. 

Even  after  the  details  of  a  system  of  mines  are  sat- 
isfactorily worked  out.  the  planting  is  a  very  serious 
matter  and  always  will  be,  unless  we  discover  some 
way  of  controlling  and  firing  the  mines  by  induction, 
without  electrical  connections  from  the  shore,  thus 
eliminating  the  cable.  Perhaps  the  development  of 
wireless  telegraphy  may  ultimately  make  this  possible. 


Dome  of  thk  Capitol. 


Electrical     Handbook         1/^1 


ELECTRICITY  IN  THE  NAVY. 

TJIIC  use  of  electricity  aboard  modern  naval  vessels 
is  so  extensive  that  to  interrupt  the  supply  dur- 
ing action  would  mean  certain  defeat  for  a  ves- 
sel were  she  matched  against  any  vessel  which 
approached  her  equal. 

The  best  manner  in  which  to  convey  an  adequate  con- 
ception of  the  extended  and  important  application  of 
electricity  aboard  naval  vessels  is  to  give  a  general  de- 
scription of  the  c(|nipnicnt  of  a  modern  battleship. 

The  Connecticut  and  Louisiana,  the  two  i6,ooo-ton 
battleships  now  under  construction,  the  former  at  the 
New  York  Navy  Yard,  the  latter  at  the  works  of  the 
Newport  News  Shipbuilding  and  Dry  Dock  Company, 
represent  the  latest  type  of  battleship,  greater  in  dis- 
placement than  any  heretofore  designed  for  our  navy 
and  carrying  heavier  armament  than  any  warship  now 
afloat,   either  in   our  navy  or  abroad. 

The  main  battery  consists  of  four  u-inch,  eight  8-inch, 
and  twelve  7-inch  breech-loading  rifles.  The  12-inch 
guns  are  mounted  two  each  in  a  forward  and  after  tur- 
ret, the  8-inch  guns  two  in  each  of  four  turrets  arranged 
one  at  each  corner  of  a  rectangle,  or  what  is  commonly 
known  as  quadralateral  turrets,  the  7-inch  guns  are  each 
in  a  separate  armored  compartment  on  the  gun  deck. 
The  secondary  battery  consists  of  twenty  3-inch  (14- 
pounder)  rapid-fire  guns,  twelve  3-pounder,  seven  auto- 
matics, and  numerous  guns  of  smaller  calibre. 

These  battleships  have  been  designed  to  carry  two 
complete  and  independent  electric  plants  each  capable  of 
handling  the  entire  load  which  may  be  required  in  ac- 
tion. 

The  electric  applications  aboard  ship  are  divided  into 
three  distinct  classes:  (i)  Illumination,  (2)  power  for 
driving  auxiliaries,  (3)  signalling  or  communication. 

The  lighting  system  is  installed  as  two  distinct  sys- 
tems, each  having  separate  feeders  and  mains  and  known 


l-ffS  The      Wa  s  king  t  on 

as  the  "Battle  Service"  and  "Lighting  Service."'  The 
battle  service  comprises  all  lights  below  the  protective 
deck,  including  those  in  engine  and  fire  rooms,  maga- 
zines, store  rooms,  and  the  like;  all  lights  at  guns,  am- 
munition hoists,  winches,  cranes  and  other  auxiliaries 
whose  operation  may  be  required  during  action:  signal- 
ling lights,  the  ship's  running  lights,  and  only  sufficient 
other  lights  in  passages  to  afford  convenient  access  to 
the  various  portions  of  the  ship.  When  necessary  to 
install  a  light  in  a  location  which  might  render  it  visible 
by  the  enemy,  a  "battle  lantern"  is  used,  this  lantern 
being  fitted  with  a  sliding  screen  which  allows  the  light 
to  shine  only  over  an  arc  of  about  90  degrees,  and  can 
be  entirely  screened  if  required,  this  feature  being  identi- 
cal with  that  of  the  ordinary  bull's-eye  or  dark  lantern. 

The  battle  service  will  efficiently  light  all  parts  of  the 
ship  subject  to  access  during  action,  and  all  other  auxil- 
iaries whose  manipulation  and  operation  during  action  is 
essential,  but  at  the  same  time  to  shield  all  lights  against 
external  visibility. 

The  lighting  service  includes  all  lights  not  included  in 
the  battle  service,  such  as  lights  in  state  rooms,  offices, 
mess  rooms,  crews'  spaces,  and  the  like,  and  also  sup- 
plies current  to  the  desk  and  bracket  fans  in  officers" 
quarters.  To  efficiently  light  each  of  these  vessels  re- 
quires the  use  of  eleven  hundred  fixtures,  of  which  about 
730  are  on  the  battle  service,  the  remainder  being  on  the 
lighting  service. 

The  fixtures  used  are  simple  in  design  and  neat  in  ap- 
pearance, the  types  most  used  being  the  steam  tight 
globe  and  the  ceiling  fixture.  These  consist  of  a  casting 
which  has  a  boss  into  which  the  conduit  carrying  the 
wires  taps,  and  a  knuckle  thread  into  which  the  glass 
globe  screws,  the  lamp  socket  being  secured  to  the  cast- 
ing by  machine  screws,  a  rubber  gasket  intervening.  The 
steam-tight  globe  is  protected  by  a  stout  metal  guard,  as 
shown  in  the  illustration.  This  type  of  fixture  is  made 
in  three  t3'pes,  differing  only  in  the  method  of  support ; 
that  shown  in  Fig.  i  is  the  bulkhead  type  and  is  secured 
by  a  bracket  cast  in  one  with  the  conical -cap,  the  other 
types  being  the  drop  type,  which  is  supported  by  the  con- 


Electrical     If  and  book  J//9 

diiit  alone,  and  the  deck  type,  in  which  the  conduit  en- 
ters the  fixture  from  the  side  instead  of  the  top,  the  fix- 
ture l)einfi'  supported  l)y  a  I)racket  cast  across  the  top  of 
the  conical  caj). 

The  cei!in,u'  fixture  is  use'd  in  passages  arf)und  the  of- 
ficers' quarters,  in  recepti(^n  cabins,  mess  rooms,  and  the 
like,  and  is  the  standard  overhead  light  for  all  locations, 
in  which  the  fixture  is  not  liable  to  injury.  The  steam- 
tight  globe  is  used  in  engine  and  fire  rooms,  ammunition 
passages,  store  rooms,  and  is  the  standard  fixed  light  for 
all  locations  where  the  fixture  is  subject  to  injury. 

Six  hand-control  projectors,  or  search-lights,  will  be 
installed.  These  will  be  located,  one  on  a  platform  at 
the  base  of  the  fore  topmast,  two  on  the  ("lying  bridge, 
one  on  a  platform  at  the  base  of  the  main  topmast,  and 
two  on  a  platform  on  the  mainmast  well  above  the  after 
bridges.  Each  projector  will  be  equipped  with  a  hori- 
zontal lamp  designed  for  both  hand  and  automatic  feed. 
Each  light  will  operate  on  a  125-volt  circuit  in  series 
with  a  regulating  rheostat,  with  60  volts  across  the  arc. 

Motors  will  be  used  for  the  following  purposes:  (a) 
To  drive  ventilating  fans  and  blowers,  (b)  carrying  am- 
munition from  magazines  to  hoists,  (c)  hoisting  ammu- 
nition, id)  turning  turrets,  (e)  elevating  and  depressing 
gun.  (/)  ramming  .shells  into  the  breech  of  guns,  (g) 
to  operate  deck  winches,  ( /;  )  to  operate  boat  cranes, 
(/)  to  whip  ammunition  from  the  main  deck  to  the 
bridge  and  military  tojis.  ( k )  for  laundry  machinery, 
(/)  for  driving  tools  and  in  machine  shop,  (hi)  for  op- 
erating automatic  power  doors,  (»)  for  operating  fresh 
water  pumps  and  sanitary  pumps,  (o)  for  driving  air 
compressors  for  charging  torpedoes. 

The  ventilating  system  comprises  thirty- three  fixed 
fans,  varying  in  size  from  those  requiring  a  fraction  of 
a  horse-power  each  for  their  operation  to  80-inch  steel 
plate  fans  requiring  11  horse-power  each.  Each  of  the 
above  fans  will  be  driven  by  its  own  independent  shunt- 
wound  electric  motor,  direct-connected,  the  control 
panel  containing  the  usual  starting  resistance  fitted  with 
automatic  overload  and  no  voltage  release.  All  fans  are 
designed   to   deliver  their  specified   amount  of  air   at   a 


1'50  The      Washington 

pressure  of  i  ounce  when  running  at  normal  speed,  but 
are  capable  of  being  driven  at  about  double  normal 
speed,  in  which  case  the  air  is  delivered  at  a  pressure  of 
lyz  ounce.  The  speed  control  is  effected  by  varying  the 
resistance  except  for  the  smaller  fans,  in  which  case  re- 
sistance in  series  with  the  armature  will  control  the 
speed. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  each  ship  will  be  supplied 
with  six  small  portable  electric  fans,  each  consisting  of 
a  J4  horse-power  series  motor  mounted  on  a  common 
shaft  with  an  exhauster  which  it  drives  at  a  speed  of 
about  2,200  revolutions  per  minute,  causing  a  delivery  of 
about  500  cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute  (free  exhaust). 
These  sets  are  very  compact,  the  overall  dimensions 
being  about  18x18x12,  and  weigh  approximately  100 
pounds.  They  are  used  for  temporary  ventilation  when 
necessary  to  work  in  such  localities  as  are  not  reached  by 
the  main  ventilating  system,  such  as  double  bottoms,  in- 
side of  boilers  and  the  like.  Each  of  these  sets  is  sup- 
plied with  two  25-foot  lengths  of  canvas  hose  with 
couplings  permitting  of  attachment  to  inlet  and  outlet  of 
exhauster  or  to  attach  together,  forming  a  50-foot 
length,  which  can  be  connected  to  either  the  inlet  or  the 
outlet  of  the  exhauster. 

The  officers'  quarters,  wardrooms  and  the  like  are  lib- 
erally fitted  with  desk  and  bracket  fans,  the  former  being 
12  inches  in  diameter,  rated  at  1-12  horse-power,  the 
latter  16  inches  in  diameter  rated  at  1-6  horse-power. 
Forty-five  of  the  former  and  eight  of  the  latter  will  be 
installed  on  each  vessel. 

At  a  comparatively  recent  date  a  ship's  ventilating 
system  consisted  of  a  few  large-sized  blowers,  generally 
located  in  pairs  with  large  main  ducts  having  many 
turns,  bends  and  with  branches  leading  to  the  various 
compartments  This  system  required  an  excess  in  air 
pressure  at  the  fan  in  order  to  maintain  a  certain  head 
at  the  discharge  outlet,  owing  to  the  loss  by  friction  of 
the  pipes  and  to  the  indirect  leads  of  the  main  ducts. 
Many  of  the  principal  water-tight  bulkheads  were 
pierced  by  the  ducts  and  this  necessitated  the  use  of 
valves   so    installed    as    to   be   of   convenient   operation. 


Electrical     Handbook  lol 

which  could  lie  closed  in  an  emergency  to  maintain  the 
water-tightness  of  the  various  compartments  below  the 
water  line.  All  leads  through  the  protective  deck  re- 
quired armored  bars  or  gratings  in  the  openings. 

The  ventilating  systems  of  the  Connecticut  and  Louis- 
iana are  so  designed  as  to  minimize  the  number  of  leads 
through  the  protective  deck,  and  in  no  instance  is  any 
one  of  the  principal  water-tight  bulkheads  pierced  by  a 
ventilating  duct.  The  flexibility  of  this  system  employ- 
ing a  number  of  small  units  as  compared  with  a  few 
large  ones,  possesses  many  advantages  which  are  at  once 
apparent,  and  the  installation  of  such  a  system  is  only 
rendered  possible  by  the  use  of  the  electric  drive. 

Conveyor  motors  are  used  for  carrying  ammunition 
from  the  magazines,  along  the  passages  to  the  base  of 
the  ammunition  hoists.  Four  conveyors  will  be  installed, 
two  leading  aft  from  the  forward  magazines,  one  on  the 
port  side  and  one  on  the  starboard  side,  and  two  leading 
forward  from  the  after  magazines,  one  port  and  one 
starboard.  Each  conveyor  will  be  about  80  feet  long  and 
will  consist  of  two  endless  sprocket  chains  with  metal 
aprons  and  stiflfeners  at  suitable  intervals.  Motors,  one 
to  each  conveyor,  will  be  shunt  wound,  reversible,  of 
about  5  horse-power,  and  will  drive  through  gearing. 

Twenty-six  endless  chain  ammunition  hoists,  each 
driven  by  a  3  horse-power  motor,  will  deliver  the  am- 
munition from  the  lower  passage  to  the  /-inch  guns  and 
secondarj'  battery.  These  are  in  addition  to  the  ammu- 
nition hoists  for  the  turret  guns.  All  the  main  battery 
guns  will  be  supplied  by  hoists  leading  direct  from  the 
lower  passages.  Init  certain  guns  of  the  secondary  bat- 
tery are  so  located  as  to  require  the  ammunition  being 
hoisted  first  to  the  berth  deck,  then  carried  along  to 
other  hoists  and  raised  to  the  upper  deck  at  the  gun 
locations. 

The  new  arrangement  of  the  main  broadside  battery, 
wherein  bj'  means  of  a  center  line  armor  bulkhead  on 
the  gun  deck  and  suitably  located  transverse  armored 
bulkheads,  each  of  the  twelve  7-inch  guns  is  located  in 
a  separate  armored  compartment,  renders  imperative  a 
separate  ammunition  supply  for  each  gun.     On  former 


152  T h  e     \V a  .s  Ji  i  n  g  t  o  n 

vessels  llic  main  hroaclside  haltcry  was  installed  in  a 
more  or  less  open  compartment,  which  would  render 
possible  the  supplying-  of  ammunition  to  more  than  one 
gun  from  the  same  hoist,  'idle  new  arrangement  in 
which  a  gun  would  he  temporarily  rendered  hors  de 
combat  hy  a  failure  of  its  individual  ammunition  hoist 
adds  to  the  importance  of  this  electrical  application  and 
the  reliance  which  must  be  placed  in  the  electric  motor 
and  in  the  ability  of  the  ship's  plant  to  furnish  the  neces- 
sary power  under  any  and  all  conditions. 

Each  amnumiton  hoist  motor  will  be  shunt  wound, 
reversible,  enclosed,  dust  and  moisture  tight,  with  suit- 
able openings  (fitted  with  water-tight  covers)  to  allow 
inspection  and  adjustment  to  brush  rigging  and  the  like. 
Motors  will  be  geared  to  the  ammunition  hoist  sprock- 
ets, each  armature  shaft  being  litted  with  a  solenoid 
brake,  which  will  set  automatically  and  prevent  turning 
of  the  armature  in  case  of  failure  of  the  line  voltage. 

Each  of  the  six  turrets  with  its  respective  pair  of  guns 
will  be  equipped  for  electrical  rotation.  This  wdll  be 
done  by  fitting  each  turret  with  two  motors  of  equal 
capacity,  either  one  of  which  will  be  capable  of  operating 
the  turret  in  case  of  failure  on  the  part  of  the  other,  al- 
though normally  they  will  both  operate  in  parallel.  For 
the  i2-inch  turrets  two  motors  of  not  less  than  25  horse- 
power will  be  installed  in  each,  and  for  the  8-incli  tur- 
rets, two  motors  of  not  less  than  15  horse-power  will  be 
installed  in  each.  The  Ward  Leonard  system  of  control 
will  be  used. 

A  motor-generator,  designed  for  comparatively  high 
speed  and  consequently  compact  and  not  over-heavy, 
will  be  installed  in  the  barbette  of  each  turret.  The 
motor  end  will  be  connected  direct  to  the  main  power 
bus-bars  of  the  main  switchboard. 

The  generator  terminals  are  led  direct  to  the  turning 
motor  terminals,  the  field  of  the  generator  end  of  the 
motor  generator  being  led  through  a  variable  resistance, 
the  latter  being  controlled  by  the  turret  operator.  It  will 
be  readily  seen  that  the  motor,  having  a  separately  ex- 
cited field,  will  run  at  a  speed  proportional  to  the  im- 
pressed armature  voltage,  the  latter  being  dependent  on 


Electrical     H an  d  bo  o  k         loS 

the  I'lold  curre'iit  of  the  generating  set,  wliich  is  con- 
trolled hy  the  turret  operator;  and  furthermore,  the 
motor  speed  will  he  delinite  for  any  fixed  position  of  the 
controller  handle,  and  that  speed  will  he  maintained 
iigainst  any  and  all  variations  of  load,  due  to  friction, 
listing  of  the  ship,  the  impact  of  a  shell,  up  to  the  point 
where  ,i  fuse  hlows  or  a  circuil-hreaker  is  thrown. 

Each  turret  gun  is  moimted  on  trunnions  and  elevated 
or  depressed  to  the  proper  angle  hy  means  of  an  electric 
motor.  As  the  gtuis  are  halanced  on  the  trunnions,  the 
elevating  or  gun  training  motors  merely  have  to  over- 
come the  friction  load  ;  or  in  case  a  shell  is  inserted  in 
the  hreech  of  the  gun  prior  to  the  elevation  of  the  gun 
to  the  proper  angle,  the  training  motor  is  suhjected  to  a 
load  in  excess  of  the  friction  load  in  depressing  the 
muz/le,  and  a  load  smaller  than  the  friction  load  if  ele- 
vating the  muzzle,  luich  12-inch  gun  will  he  equipped 
with  a  5  horse-power  gun-elevating  motor,  and  each  S- 
ir.ch  gun  with  a  J. 5  horse-power  gun-elevating  motor. 
These  mo::rs  will  be  shunt  wound,  reversible,  enclosed, 
waterproof,  with  the  usual  hand  holes  for  inspection. 
Rheostatic  control  will  be  used. 

For  rannning  the  shells  into  the  I)recch  of  the  12-inch 
and  cS-inch  guns,  a  "rammer  motor"  is  installed,  one  for 
each  gun.  These  motors  are  series  wound  and  subject 
to  loads  which  are  largely  in  one  direction.  They  oper- 
ate the  rammer  through  a  friction  drive  so  adjusted  that 
in  case  the  shell  is  set  home  before  the  motor  is  stopped, 
the  clutch  will  slip  before  the  motor  draws  sufficient  cur- 
rent to  throw  the  circuit-breaker.  F.ach  12-inch  gun  will 
be  equipped  with  a  7  horse-power  rannner  motor  and 
each  8-inch  gun  with  a  5  horse-power  rannner  motor. 

Each  turret  gun  has  its  individual  ammuniton  hoist, 
which  works  on  the  principle  of  cables  or  hoisting  ropes 
winding  on  and  off  a  drum  which  is  actuated  by  an 
electric  motor.  The  motors  will  be  operated  through  a 
controller  with  a  single  handle  which  will  allow  sudden 
reversal ;  the  carrying  of  the  load  in  either  direction ;  the 
automatic  locking  of  the  drum  against  rotation  in  either 
direction,  when  the  current  supply  is  cut  oflf,  and  the 
operation  of  the  motor  when  under  any  load  on  each  of 


7.74  The    Wa  shi  n  (/ton 

five  speeds,  l-'or  the  12-inch  guns  the  motors  must  han- 
dle a  load  of  a))out  3,200  pounds,  and  will  l)e  of  about 
30  horse-])o\ver  each.  For  the  S-inch  guns  the  motors 
must  handle  a  load  of  about  1,000  pounds,  and  will  be 
about  8  horse-power  each. 

Each  ship  w'ill  be  fitted  with  six  double-headed 
winches,  two  forward  on  the  main  deck,  two  on  the  up- 
per deck  in  the  waist  of  the  ship,  and  two  well  aft  on  ihe 
quarter  deck.  These  winches  will  be  used  in  coaling 
ship,  handling  anchors  and  in  stowing  cargo.  Each 
winch  will  be  operated  by  a  25  horse-power  motor. 
These  motors  will  be  series  wound,  reversible,  enclosed, 
w'ater-tight,  and  designed  to  withstand  strains  due  to  in- 
crease of  speed  on  sudden  removal  of  the  load.  The  two 
forward  main  deck  winches  must  each  be  capable  of 
hoisting  a  2,200-pound  load  at  a  speed  of  300  feet  per 
minute,  and  the  same  load  at  a  speed  of  30  feet  per 
minute ;  the  tw-o  upper  deck  winches  to  hoist  2,2iyj 
pounds  load  at  a  speed  of  300  feet  per  minute,  the  quar- 
ter deck  winches  to  hoist  a  2,200-pound  load  at  300  feet 
per  minute,  and  a  13,200-pound  load  at  50  feet  per  min- 
ute. Specifications  allow  an  option  between  gearing  and 
electric  devices  for  obtaining  the  necessary  speed  varia- 
tions. 

Two  l>oat  cranes  will  l)e  used  to  handle  the  ship's 
boats  and  launches,  of  which  each  ship  carries  a  suffi- 
cient number  to  float  her  entire  complement  of  over  800 
men.  The  cranes  will  be  electrically  operated  with  sep- 
arate motors  for  hoisting  and  for  rotating.  Crane  re- 
quirements specify  a  hoist  of  33,000  pounds  at  a  speed  of 
25  feet  per  minute,  and  a  rotation  at  the  rate  of  one  revo- 
lution per  minute,  while  carr^'ing  the  above  load  and 
with  the  sliip  lieeled  to  10  degrees.  Motors  will  be  en- 
closed, water-tight  and  reversible,  the  hoisting  motor 
being  series  wound.  Hoisting  motors  will  be  about  50 
horse-power  each,  and  rotating  motors  about  30  horse- 
power each.  Both  motors  will  be  located  on  a  platform 
which  revolves  with  the  crane.  The  revolution  em- 
bracing a  complete  rotation,  it  will  be  necessary  to  lead 
the  electric  wires  to  the  crane  motors  through   contact 


Electrical     Handbook         155 

riiijj^  rind  hrii^lics;  the  former  will  pmhahly  lie  on  the 
rotating  crane,  the  latter  heing  the  terminals  of  the 
feeder. 

Laundry  machinery  will  be  electrically  driven  hy  an 
enclosed  motor  of  about  lO  horse-power.  The  machinery 
workshop  of  each  vessel  will  include  a  48-inch  extension 
gap  lathe,  a  14-inch  lathe,  a  15-inch  stroke  column 
shaper.  a  vertical  drill  press,  a  16-inch  sensitive  drill,  a 
universal  milling  machine,  a  combined  hand  punch  and 
shears,  an  emery  grinder  with  two  12-inch  wheels,  and  a 
30-inch  grindstone.  All  the  machine  tools  will  be  elec- 
trically driven,  either  direct-connected  or  through  shaft- 
ing, and  will  require  from  10  to  15  horse-power. 

All  doors  leading  between  boiler  rooms,  between  en- 
gine rooms,  between  boiler  and  engine  rooms,  from 
boiler  rooms  into  bunkers,  at  the  ends  of  the  main  am- 
munition passages  and  the  like,  and  the  main  hatches 
through  the  protective  deck,  both  fore  and  aft — in  all 
forty-two  doors  and  five  armor  hatches — will  be  worked 
on  a  power  system.  Each  such  door  or  hatch  will  be 
capable  of  operation  on  the  spot^  by  hand  or  by  power, 
from  either  side  of  the  bulkhead  or  deck,  and  all  must 
be  capable  of  being  closed  by  power  simultaneously  from 
an  emergency  station,  which  will  probably  be  located  in 
the  pilot  house.  If  electrically  operated  doors  are  used, 
a  I  horse-power  motor  will  be  installed  at  each  door  and 
hatch,  forty-seven  in  all.  If  pneumatic  power  is  used,  a 
motor-driven  air  compressor  will  supply  the  energy-.  In 
the  latter  case  the  motor  will  be  automatically  stopped 
and  started  by  pneumatic  operation  of  the  controller. 
An  indicator  at  the  emergency  station  will  enable  the 
operator  to  determine  wliether  any  door  or  hatch  is  open 
or  closed. 

Two  2  horse-power  motors,  driving  centrifugal  pumps. 
will  be  used  in  connection  with  the  fresh  water  system 
for  circulation  between  the  distiller  and  the  various 
tanks.  Motors  will  be  automatically  stopped  and  started 
by  means  of  floats  operating  the  controllers.  Two  6 
horse-power  motors,  driving  centrifugal  pumps,  will  be 
used  in  connection  with  the  salt  water  sanitary  service  or 
flushing. 


UPHRATING  Room,  Wireless  Telegraph 
Fig.  I. 


Elect  rica  I     Ha  n  d  b  oo  k         157 

A  wireless  telegraph  outfit  will  be  supplied  of  the 
latest  and  most  approved  type.  A  typical  operating  room 
is  shown  in  Fig.  i,  the  arrangement  of  apparatus  being 
perhaps  somewhat  more  compact  than  would  be  followed 
in  shore  installations ;  but,  as  all  space  on  a  battleship 
is  at  a  premium,  a  more  liberal  assignment  of  room  for 
this  equipment  cannot  be  made.  The  "aerial"  can  be 
seen  coming  through  deck  overhead  through  a  heavy 
ebonite  insulator.  The  "ground"  is  obtained  by  connect- 
ing direct  to  the  hull  of  the  ship. 

An  extensive  application  of  electrical  apparatus  will 
be  found  in  the  systems  of  communication  aboard  these 
vessels.  About  ninety  voice  pipes  will  be  installed,  most 
of  which  will  be  fitted  with  suitable  electric  calling  de- 
vices in  the  shape  of  push  l)uttons.  bells,  buzzers  and 
annunciators. 

A  liberal  disposition  of  push  buttons  in  the  officers' 
quarters  allow  the  calling  of  the  various  pantries,  order- 
lies, messengers  and  the  like,  to  the  various  state  rooms, 
cabins,  officers  and  mess  rooms  as  required.  A  telephone 
system  comprising  some  twenty-five  lines,  running  to  a 
central  station,  will  be  installed.  In  addition  several  pri- 
vate lines  are  installed,  such  as  between  navigator's 
stateroom  and  djmamo  rooms,  between  chief  engineer's 
state  room  and  engine  room,  between  surgeon's  state 
room  and  dispensary,  and  the  like. 

In  the  various  living  spaces  of  each  ship,  single-stroke 
electrically-operated  gongs,  12  inches  in  diameter,  are 
installed.  These  gongs  can  be  operated  all  simultaneous- 
ly, from  either  the  captain's  state  room,  pilot  house, 
conning  tower,  or  executive  officer's  state  room.  The 
circuit  closers  are  automatic  in  operation  and  ring  the 
gongs  continuously  for  thirty  seconds  when  set  in  mo- 
tion. These  signals,  known  as  general  alarm  gongs,  are 
used  for  calling  the  men  to  quarters. 

Located  in  spaces  below  the  protective  deck  and  at  the 
main  hatches  leading  below  this  deck,  warning  signals, 
or  water-tight  door  alarms,  are  installed.  These  consist 
of  solenoids  operating  a  plunger  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
force  air  through  a  whistle,  which  gives  forth  a  shrill 
sound.     These  warning  signals  are  all  capable  of  being 


158  T  It  e     Washington 

operated  either  from  the  quarter  deck  or  the  pilot  house. 
They  are  used  to  give  the  signal  for  closing  all  water- 
tight doors  and  hatches,  which  is  done  when  danger 
from  collision  or  other  cause  is  imminent. 

Thermostats  are  installed  in  all  coal  hunkers  and 
magazines  and  all  storerooms  containing  comhustible 
material.  They  consist  of  a  helical  metal  coil  having  a 
high  temperature  coefficient.  This  coil  is  mounted  with 
one  end  free,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  torsional  efifect 
produced  by  a  slight  rise  in  temperature  causes  a  slight 
displacement  of  the  free  end.  This  closes  an  electric 
circuit,  which  leads  to  a  drop  on  an  annunciator  located 
under  the  eye  of  the  captain's  orderly.  These  thermo- 
stats are  enclosed  in  a  heavy  composition  case  and  are 
sufficiently  strong  to  allow  their  installation  in  any  por- 
tion of  a  coal  bunker.  It  is  customary-  to  install  them 
well  down  in  the  bunkers  at  about  the  depth  which  ex- 
perience dictates  is  most  subject  to  spontaneous  combus- 
tion., Coal  bunker  and  store  room  thermostats  are  set 
for  200  degrees  F.,  and  magazine  thermostats  for  about 
100  degrees  F.  A  total  of  171  thermostats  will  be  in- 
stalled on  each  vessel,  of  which  about  70  will  be  in  coal 
bunkers  and  67  in  store  rooms,  each  group  being  on  a 
separate  annunciator. 

Electric  revolution  indicators  will  be  installed  in  the 
pilot  house  and  conning  tower  for  signalling  the  number 
of  revolutions  of  each  main  engine  shaft.  These  indi- 
cators will  be  of  the  "tick-tack"  type,  each  revolution  of 
the  shaft  closing  the  circuit  through  an  electric  magnet 
on  the  indicators,  which  in  turn  draws  down  its  arma- 
ture and  causes  a  pointer  to  vibrate  through  an  angle  of 
about  30  degrees.  Each  indicator  has  a  pointer  and 
magnet  for  "ahead"  and  "astern,"  corresponding  to  "for- 
ward" and  "reverse"  rotation  of  the  engines. 

Electric  engine  telegraphs  located  in  the  pilot  house 
and  in  the  conning  tower,  with  indicators  in  each  engine 


Electrical     Handbook         159 

room,  will  ]>crniit  slij^ht  variations  in  speed  to  be  sig- 
nalled. These  inNtriiments  are  of  the  "lamp"  tj'pe.  and 
consist  of  5  candle-power  electric  lamps  arranged  in 
separate  compartments,  over  the  face  of  which  are  brass 
templets  with  the  desired  order  cut  through.  By  illu- 
minating the  lamp  in  any  comi)artment,  which  is  done  by 
closing  the  circuit  at  the  transmitter,  the  light  shines 
through  the  letters  or  figures  on  the  dial  or  the  brass 
templet  and  indicates  the  desired  order. 

Helm  order  telegraphs  located  in  the  pilot  house  and 
conning  tower,  with  indicators  at  all  steering  stations, 
will  permit  of  electrically  signalling  to  the  helmsman  the 
desired  helm  angle.  These  instruments  are  similar  in 
construction  to  the  engine  telegraphs,  except  that  the 
markings  and  the  number  of  indications  are  different. 

Electric  rudder  indicators  of  the  lamp  type,  located  at 
all  steering  stations  and  connected  to  a  transmitter  on 
the  rudder  head,  will  indicate  the  angle  at  w'hich  the 
rudder  is  set,  and  acts  as  a  check  in  determining  if  an 
order  transmitted  to  the  helmsman  hy  the  helm  order 
telegraph  has  been  carried  out. 

For  each  turret  ammunition  hoist  an  indicator  will  be 
installed  which  will  .show  the  operator  in  the  turret 
when  the  ammunition  car  is  loaded  and  ready  for  hoist- 
ing, and  also  during  the  lowering  of  the  car,  when  it  is 
approaching  the  lower  limit  of  travel.  These  indications 
\\\\\  consist  of  lamps  in  view  of  the  turret  operator, 
which  are  automatically  lighted  and  extinguished  by 
contacts  operated  by  the  passage  of  the  ammuniton  car. 
The  top  of  each  mast  will  be  fitted  with  a  double 
truck  light,  which  consists  of  two  32  candle-power  lamps 
mounted  one  in  a  red  and  the  other  in  a  white  lens. 
Both  truck  lights  will  be  controlled  by  one  "double- 
truck  light  controller"  located  on  the  forward  bridge. 
This  controller  permits  the  illumination  of  either  light 
on  either  truck,  which  light  can  be  pulsated  by  means  of 
a  pulsator  on  the  side  of  a  controller.     These  lights  are 


160  T  Ji  e     W  a  s  hi  n  r/t  on 

used  to  signal  when  cruising  in  squadron  formation.  A 
white  light  signals  "steaming  ahead."  a  pulsating  of 
white  light  "slowing  down ;"  a  red  light,  "engines 
stopped;"  a  red  light  pulsating,  "going  astern." 

Each  ship  will  carry  two  night  signalling  sets.  These 
sets  consist  of  four  douljle  lanterns  suspended  on  a  lad- 
der from  an  outrigger  near  the  truck  of  each  mast. 
Each  lantern  consists  of  two  ^^2  candle-pnwer  lamps 
mounted  in  pressed  glass  Fresnel  lenses,  one  lamp  of 
each  double  lantern  being  mounted  in  a  red  lens,  the 
others  in  a  white  lens.  The  lanterns  will  be  spaced  12 
feet  apart.  By  means  of  a  suitable  keyboard  on  the 
bridge,  the  red  or  the  white  light  in  any  or  all  lanterns 
or  any  combination  of  red  and  white  lights  on  the  four 
lanterns  (only  one  light  on  each  lantern)  can  be  illu- 
minated. By  means  of  a  pre-arranged  code  of  signals, 
messages  can  be  transmitted  to  any  station  within  range 
of  visibility  of  the  lights.  The  use  of  two  night  signal- 
ling .sets,  one  suspended  from  the  foremast  swinging 
outboard  to  port,  the  other  from  the  mainmast  swinging 
outboard  to  starboard,  permits  signalling  to  any  station 
regardless  of  its  bearing  to  the  ship's  head ;  whereas  with 
only  one  night  signalling  set  the  relative  location  of  the 
ship  and  the  station  to  which  it  is  desirous  of  signalling 
might  be  such  that  the  mast  from  which  the  lanterns  are 
suspended  would  intercept  the  path  of  the  light  and  ren- 
der the  signal  indiscernible.  The  keyboard  is  mounted 
on  a  pedestal  and  is  enclosed  in  a  case  with  a  hinged 
cover.  The  apparatus  is  similar  in  appearance  to  a  type- 
writer keyboard,  and  the  depression  of  a  single  key  dis- 
plays the  desired  combination  of  lights.  A  cable  of  16 
conductors  running  to  the  lanterns  enters  the  keyboard 
through  a  detachable  water-tight  coupling. 

A  summation  of  the  electric  auxiliaries  on  each  ship 
with  the  probable  maximum  current  required  by  each 
group,  both  for  "in  action"  and  for  "cruising  efficiency" 
is  given  in  the  following  table.  In  estimating  current 
required  for  the  various  motors,  efficiencies  varying  from 
80  per  cent,  up  have  been  assumed,  depending  on  the  size 
of  the  motor : 


Electrical     Handbook 


161 


Name  oi"  Appliance. 


Incandescent  fixtures 

Arc  lamps 

30-inch  search  lights 

Hans,  1-12-H.  P 

Fans,  I  6H.  P 

Port.  vent,  sets  i^-H   P.... 
Interior  communications. 


I  .^  I  (13    ^ 


Total. 


Main  vent  blowers 

Amraunitioii  carriers 

Ammunition  hoists,  chain  ... 
Ammunition,      turrets,      12" 

guns 

Ammunition,  turrets,  8" guns 
Gun    elevating    motors,    12" 

guns I 

Gun    elevating     motors,    8" 

guns 

Gun  rainmermotors.i2"guns 
Gun  rammer  motors,  b"  guns 
Turret  turning    motors,    12" 

guns 

Turret    turning    motors,    8" 

guns 

Smoke  blowers 

Deck  winches 

Boat  cranes,  hoisting 

Boat  cranes,  rotating 

Whip  hoi.sts 

Laundry  motor 

Machine  shop  motor 

Powder  door  and  hatches 

Fresh  water  pumps 

Sanitary  pumps 

.Air  compressors 


-%  to  10 
4 
3 

30 

8 


2Y2 

7 

5 


Total. 


c  - 

3-- 


800 


01     10 


O  O  I 


700    550   4001  270 


35      35 

2|    450     450 

45      23 

S'      si 

6'     18 


25 


O   C8 

z  o 


4 
26 

4 

8 

4 

8 

4 

8 

4 

8 

12 

■■■■■(S 

2 

.....^ 

2 

I 

47 

2 

2 

2 

1 8851 630 

33    950  950'  6301 

120'  I20|    I50I 

570!  570         ■    ' 


800     800 
450     450 


285 


140  140  70 

i6o|  160  80 

2001  200  * 

280  280,  * 


670 


335    1 70 


840   420    210 

50     50      25 

1000 

660 

400 

1301  130     65 

70 

70 
35°!  35°;   120 

30 

80 
840'  840;  840 


194    178     49'9969'5i93l3450 


*  Rammer  motors  not  operative  during  hoisting  of  ammunition. 

The  entire  electric  equipment  of  each  ship  aggregates 
9,969  amperes,  wliich,  at  the  standard  voltage  of  125, 
corresponds  to  1,250  kilowatts;  and  the  total  power  re- 
quired by  auxiliaries  which  are  operative  in  action,  cor- 
responds to  885  amperes,  or  110.6  kilowatts  for  the  light- 
ing and  projector  load,  and  5.795  amperes,  or  724  kilo- 
watts for  the  power  load,  making  a  grand  total  of  8,^4.6. 


16S  The     Washington 

As  many  of  the  liattle  auxiliaries  are  of  such  a  nature  as 
to  be  subject  to  intermittent  service,  the  probable  maxi- 
mum battle  load  is  well  below  this  figure,  the  estimated 
values  being  as  indicated  in  the  next  to  the  last  column, 
viz.:  630  amperes  or  78.8  kilowatts  for  the  lighting  and 
projector  load,  and  3,450  amperes  or  431  kilowatts  for 
the  power  load,  making  a  grand  total  of  510  kilowatts. 

As  previously  stated,  two  independent  power  plants 
will  be  installed  on  each  ship,  and  are  designated  as  the 
forward  dynamo  room  and  the  after  dynamo  room. 
Both  will  be  located  beneath  the  protective  deck  on  a 
platform  whose  level  comes  between  the  upper  platform 
and  the  lower  platform,  this  special  platform  being  nec- 
essary to  secure  sufificient  headroom  to  install  the  gen- 
erating sets.  The  forward  dynamo  room  is  located  be- 
tween the  forward  magazines  and  the  boiler  spaces,  the 
after  dynamo  room  between  the  boiler  spaces  and  the 
main  engine  rooms. 

Four  lOO-kilowatt,  125-volt  generating  sets  will  be  in- 
stalled in  each  dynamo  room.  These  sets  will  be  direct- 
connected,  the  engines  being  vertical  cross  compound, 
of  the  enclosed  t3'pe  and  fitted  with  forced  lubrication. 

Each  dynamo  room  is  capable  of  handling  indepen- 
dently the  entire  battle  load.  This  arrangement  was 
considered  imperative  in  view  of  the  extended  applica- 
tion of  the  electric  drive  to  the  important  battle  auxil- 
iaries and  in  view  of  the  danger  of  the  electric  plant 
being  rendered  inoperative  from  the  following  causes: 

(a)  Dynamo  room  rendered  uninhabitable  by  break- 
ing of  a  steam  pipe,  (b)  Dynamo  room  rendered  un- 
inhabitable bj'  flooding  of  the  compartment,  (c)  Gen- 
erators or  engines  being  damaged  by  heavy  short  cir- 
cuits, id)  Damage  to  compartment  by  shell  from  the 
enemy. 

Distribution  of  energ\-  to  all  battle  service  when  one 
dynamo  room  is  out  of  commission  and  uninhabitable 
necessitates  either  duplicating  the  wiring  to  each  auxil- 
iary, viz. :  one  current  leading  from  each  dynamo  room 
with  a  throw-over  switch  at  each  auxiliary:  or  wiring 
from  distribution  boards  which  are  located  external  to 
and  yet  capable  of  electric  connection  to  each  dynamo 


Electrical     Handbook         JO-J 

room  at  will.  This  latter  scheme  has  been  adopted, 
using  two  main  distril)iition  Ijoards,  one  adjacent  to  each 
dynamo  room,  and  in  addition  dnplicate  wiring  has  been 
specified  for  certain  of  the  more  important  circuits. 

Convenience  dictates  that  the  switchl)oards  for  control 
of  the  generators  he  located  in  the  respective  dynamo 
rooms,  and  that  tiie  distril)ution  boards  be  located  adja- 
cent to  the  dynamo  rooms.  These  distribution  boards 
are,  furthermore,  each  in  its  water-tight  compartment, 
these  compartments  being  each  provided  with  a  water- 
tight door  leading  direct  into  the  adjacent  dynamo  room 
and  with  another  door  permitting  access  to  the  com- 
partment independent  of  the  dynamo  rooms. 

Provision  is  made  for  the  supply  of  energy  to  the 
lighting  .system  and  the  projectors  from  a  separate  gen- 
erating set ;  the  ordinary  assignment  in  action  with  one 
dynamo  room  in  use  would  be  one  generating  set  to  the 
lighting  system  and  the  projectors  and  three  generating 
sets  in  parallel  on  the  power  system.  The  arrangement 
of  main  switchboards  will,  however,  permit  the  opera- 
tion of  any  or  all  generators  in  either  dynamo  room  in 
parallel  on  the  entire  ship's  load.  On  ships  so  powered 
as  to  occasion  the  assignment  of  generating  sets  of  50- 
kilowatt  capacity  or  less  to  the  lighting  system,  it  has 
been  the  custom  to  make  provision  for  supplying  the 
projectors  from  a  generating  set  independent  of  the 
lighting  system ;  but  in  the  present  r.istance  any  gener- 
ating set  is  of  ample  capacity  to  handle  the  combined 
lighting  and  projector  load.  As  the  power  required  by 
each  projector  is  less  than  10  per  cent,  of  the  capacity  of 
a  generating  set,  several  projectors  could  be  thrown  in 
circuit  simultaneously  without  causing  a  material  "dip" 
in  the  intensity  of  the  incandescent  illumination. 

Two  main  switchboards  and  two  distribution  boards 
are  used.  Two  sets  of  feeders,  one  for  lighting  and  pro- 
jectors, the  other  for  power,  are  run  from  each  main 
switchboard  to  each  main  distribution  board.  In  gen- 
eral, the  forward  distribution  board  supplies  all  circuits 
forward  of  the  amidship  portion  of  the  vessel,  and  the 
after  distribution  board  all  circuits  abaft  the  amitlships 
portion  of  the  vessel. 


10. 'f  T  he     Washington 

Under  normal  conditions  during  action  each  distribu- 
tion board  will  be  energized  only  from  its  adjacent  dy- 
namo room ;  but  in  the  event  of  one  dynamo  room  being 
put  out  of  commission,  throw-over  switches  on  its  adja- 
cent distribution  board  will  enable  this  distribution  board 
to  energize  from  the  other  dynamo  room.  This  pro- 
vision permits  the  operation  of  every  electrical  auxiliary 
aboard  the  ship,  although  either  dynamo  room  may  be 
out  of  commission. 

As  a  further  safeguard,  the  feeders  for  certain  of  the 
circuits  which  are  of  maximum  importance  during  action 
will  be  wired  from  each  distribution  board  with  a  throw- 
over  switch  on  the  far  end  of  each  feeder,  i.  e.,  at  the 
location  of  the  auxiliary  which  the  feeder  supplies.  This 
arrangement  permits  the  operation  of  these  auxiliaries 
even  with  one  dynamo  room  and  the  adjacent  distribu- 
tion board  out  of  commission,  or  with  one  dynamo  room 
the  remote  distribution  board  wrecked,  the  latter  case, 
however,  being  highly  improbable. 

The  turning  motors  of  each  turret  are,  as  stated  pre- 
viously, operated  from  a  motor  generator  located  in  the 
turret  barbette,  the  motor  generator  for  each  turret  be- 
ing supplied  and  controlled  from  a  panel  located  in  the 
barbette,  this  panel  containing  a  throw-over  switch  and 
wired  with  a  feeder  to  each  distribution  board,  as  out- 
lined above. 

As  heretofore  stated,  each  turret  is  equipped  with  two 
ammunition  hoist  motors,  two  gun-elevating  motors, 
two  rammer  motors,  and  two  small  smoke-blower  mo- 
tors. These  various  motors  are  supplied  from  auxiliary 
distribution  boards  located  one  in  each  turret,  these 
boards  in  turn  being  supplied  with  a  throw-over  switch 
and  wired  with  a  feeder  from  each  distribution  board. 

The  incandescent  lights  in  the  engine  rooms  are  wired 
from  two  mains,  one  for  each  engine  room.  By  means 
of  throw-over  switches  and  a  feeder  from  each  distribu- 
tion board,  the  lights  in  either  engine  room  can  be  sup- 
plied from  either  distribution  board.  A  similar  ar- 
rangement is  provided  for  lighting  the  boiler  spaces. 

All  other  circuits  are  wired  to  but  one  distribution 
board,  the  forward  distribution  board  controlling  41  cir- 
cuits, this  number  including  one-half  the  circuits  which 
are  wired  with  duplicate  feeders  as  outlined  above.     Of 


Electrical  Ha  nd  ho  ok  105 

these,  9  circuits  are  for  lighting,  3  for  searclilights,  and 
29  for  power.  The  after  distribution  board  supplies  42 
circuits,  8  on  ligliting,  3  on  searchlights,  and  30  on 
])Ower. 

The  dynamo  leads  from  the  generating  sets  to  the 
generator  will  be  of  1,200,000  centimeters  run  in  two  ca- 
bles of  600,000  centimeters  each.  The  lighting  feeders, 
running  from  each  main  generator  board  to  each  dis- 
tribution board  will  be  of  1,000.000  centimeters  each.  The 
power  feeders  from  each  main  generator  board  to  each 
distribution  board  will  be  of  3,000,000  centimeters  each, 
run  with  three  1,000,000  cables. 

Generator  switchboards  located  one  in  each  dynamo 
room  and  controlling  the  four  loo-kilow'att  units  in  that 
dynamo  room  wmII  each  comprise  a  generator  panel,  a 
power  feeder  panel,  and  a  lighting  feeder  panel.  The 
generator  panel  will  be  so  arranged  that  all  the  appa- 
ratus for  controlling  each  unit  will  be  in  a  vertical  line 
and  will  consist  of  a  single-pole  circuit-breaker,  a  volt- 
meter, an  ammeter,  field  regulator,  a  single-pole  switch 
permitting  the  connection  of  one  lead  of  the  machinery 
to  the  lighting  bus-bar,  a  similar  switch  for  connection 
to  the  power  bus-bar,  and  a  switch  to  the  common  nega- 
tive bus  and  a  switch  to  the  equalizer  bus.  The  lighting 
feeder  panel  will  contain  a  recording  ammeter,  to  meas- 
ure the  entire  load  on  the  panel,  the  feeders,  one  to  each 
distribution  board,  each  leading  through  double-pole 
switches  and  circuit-breakers.  The  power  feeder  panel 
contains  similar  apparatus,  but  of  the  requisite  capacity. 

With  the  exception  of  certain  through  leads  in  the 
lower  passages,  the  entire  installation  will  be  wired  in 
steel  enameled  conduit.  Wiring  between  generators  and 
switchboards  within  the  dynamo  rooms,  and  the  through 
leads  mentioned  above  will  be  installed  on  porcelain  in- 
sulators, metal  strapped  and  secured  direct  to  hull. 

All  wire  of  and  under  60,000  centimeters  will  be  twin 
conductor;  sizes  in  excess  of  60,000  centimeters  will  be 
installed  as  single  conductor,  a  separate  conduit  being 
used  for  each  leg  of  a  circuit. 

The  installation,  exclusive  of  interior  communications, 
will  require  approximately  44,000  feet  of  wire  weighing 
27,000  pounds. 


Electrical     H  andhook  J  67 


THE  GOVERNMENT  TESTING  TANK  FOR  SHIP 

MODELS  AT  THE  WASHINGTON 

NAVY   YARD. 

THE  value  of  towing  experiments  upon  small 
scale  models  of  ships  for  the  purpose  of  de- 
ducing the  resistance  of  a  full-sized  ship  from 
that  of  the  small  model  was  demonstrated  by 
the  late  Mr.  William  Froude,  who,  at  his  own  expense, 
built  a  small  tank  for  such  experimental  work  at  Tor- 
quay, England,  about  1870.  The  English  Admiralty 
subsequently  recognized  the  value  of  his  work  and  as- 
sisted him  in  it,  later  building  a  larger  basin  at  Haslar, 
near  Portsmouth,  which  is  now  in  charge  of  his  son, 
Mr.  R.  E.  Froude.  Other  governments,  notably  Italy 
and  Russia,  were  induced  to  establish  model  basins, 
which  were  largely  copies  of  Froude's  basin;  and  one 
firm  of  private  builders,  Denny  Brothers,  of  Glasgow. 
Scotland,  was  sufficiently  enterprising  to  build  a  basin 
for  its  own  use. 

The  basin  is  located  in  the  southeast  corner  of  the 
Washington  Navy  Yard,  and  is  enclosed  by  a  suitable 
brick  building.  This  building  is  500  feet  long  and  about 
50  feet  wide  inside,  the  only  openings  being  the  doors 
and  the  windows  in  the  monitor.  The  water  surface  in 
the  basin  is  slightly  shorter  than  the  building,  being 
about  470  feet  long.  The  deep  portion  is  about  370  feet 
long,  the  south  end,  from  which  runs  begin,  being  nar- 
row and  shallow.  The  water  surface  is  43  feet  wide, 
and  the  depth  from  the  top  of  coping  to  the  bottom  of 
the  basin  is  142-3  feet.  The  basin  is  considerably  larger 
than  any  other  in  existence.  The  nature  of  the  ground 
was  such  as  to  render  the  construction  of  a  thoroughly 
tight  and  stable  basin  somewliat  difficult,  but  owing 
to  the  small  space  available  at  the  Washington  Yard,  it 
was  necessary  to  locate  it  upon  its  present  site.  The 
bottom  of  the  basin  proper  is  made  up  of  a  layer  of 
broken   stone   about    12   inches  thick,   upon   which   is  a 


168  T  h  e      Was  king  to  n 

thin  la\fr  of  concrete  (aljout  3  inches),  tlien  a  lialf  incli 
of  Neuchatel  asphalt,  then  about  9  inches  of  concrete,  in 
sections  16  feet  long,  the  keys  between  the  various  sec- 
tions being  filled  with  Bermudez  asphalt,  and  the  whole 
inside  surface  covered  with  the  asphalt.  The  he^vy  side 
walls  are  6  feet  thick  at  the  bottom,  6  feet  deep,  and 
about  41/'  feet  thick  on  the  top,  not  counting  the  molded 
stone  coping.  They  are  in  40-foot  lengths,  with  a  square 
keyhole  between  adjacent  lengths  filled  with  Bermudez 
asphalt.  The  side  walls  rest  upon  a  double  row  of 
piles,  and  in  addition  there  is  sheet  piling  completely 
around  the  deep  part  of  the  tank.  The  shallow  part  of 
the  tank  at  the  southern  extension  is  also  carried  on 
piling,  as  it  actually  overhangs  the  water. 

The  law  authorizing  the  construction  of  the  model 
basin  also  authorized  experiments  to  be  made  for  pri- 
vate shipbuilders,  provided  they  defrayed  the  actual  cost 
of  the  same,  it  being  understood,  of  course,  that  such 
experiments  should  not  interfere  with  naval  work.  This 
being  the  case,  it  was  necessary  to  lay  out  the  plant  with 
a  view  to  the  rapid  and  economical  turning  out  of  rou- 
tine experiments,  and  to  this  end  the  endeavor  has  been 
throughout  to  use  machinery  for  as  many  of  the  opera- 
tions as  possible.  The  foreign  tanks  invariably  use  par- 
affine  for  the  construction  of  models,  and  generally  make 
them  from  10  to  14  feet  long.  The  climate  of  Washing- 
ton, however,  is  so  warm  in  the  summer  that  it  was 
found  impossible  to  obtain  paraffine  that  would  retain  its 
rigidity  satisfactorily,  and,  moreover,  it  was  the  desire 
of  the  Bureau  to  make  the  models  as  large  as  possible, 
thus  eliminating  one  source  of  inaccuracy  in  applying 
the  model  experiments  to  full-sized  ships.  For  these 
reasons  wood  was  adopted  as  a  material  for  the  models, 
and  after  some  difficulty  a  satisfactory  varnish  was 
found  which  rendered  the  surface  of  the  wood  to  all  in- 
tents and  purposes  absolutely  water-tight.  The  standard 
length  of  model  used  is  20  feet.  A  model  20  feet  long 
may  not  seem  much  larger  than  one  12  feet  long,  but 
when   it  is  remembered  that  the   displacements  of  these 


Electrical     Ha  ndhoo  k  109 

two  are  respectively  as  8,000  and  1,728,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  20-foot  model  is  nearly  five  times  the  size  of  the 
12-foot  model. 

The  method  of  building  the  models  is  as  follows:  The 
"lines"  of  the  vessel's  hull  as  developed  by  its  designers 
invariably  include  a  body  plan  giving  sections  at  mod- 
erately close  intervals.  From  this  body  plan  new  sec- 
tions are  drawn  to  the  proper  size  for  a  20-foot  model, 
by  means  of  the  eidograph  or  large  pantograph.  These 
sections  are  cut  out  of  paper,  and  then  transferred  to 
wooden  boards  which  are  sawed  to  shape.  These  boards 
are  then  erected  in  their  proper  relative  position  upon 
the  erecting  table,  each  board  section  being  clamped  in  a 
vertical  plane.  They  are  then  covered  with  battens 
about  Y2  inch  thick,  and  tapering  from  amidships  to- 
wards the  end.  making  a  "former"'  model,  the  surface  of 
which  is  planed  smooth.  In  cutting  out  the  sections,  al- 
lowance is  made  for  the  thickness  of  the  battens,  which 
have  to  be  nailed  upon  them.  ISIeanwhile  a  rough  block 
of  such  shape  and  dimensions  that  the  finished  model 
can  be  cut  from  it  has  been  prepared,  by  gluing  together 
under  pressure  in  a  large  hydraulic  press  pieces  of  plank 
roughly  cut  to  an  appropriate  shape.  This  block  is 
placed  upon  the  upper  table  of  the  model  cutting  ma- 
chine, the  "former''  model  being  placed  upon  the  lower 
table.  The  model  cutting  machine  works  upon  the 
principle  of  the  Blanchard  lathe,  a  roller  traversing  the 
surface  of  the  "former"  model  and  saws  or  cutters 
working  upon  the  surface  of  the  model  proper.  The 
bulk  of  the  material  is  removed  from  the  block  by 
means  of  the  saws,  which  are  shifted  along  a  short  dis- 
tance at  a  time.  Rotary  cutters  are  then  applied  which 
finish  the  surface  of  the  model  very  close  to  the  desired 
shape.  The  model  is  then  removed  from  the  cutting  ma- 
chine and  finished  by  hand;  a  very  small  amount  of 
hand  work,  however,  being  found  necessary.  It  is  then 
ready  for  varnishing,  and  the  attachment  of  any  appen- 
dages, such  as  bilge  keel,  struts,  etc.  It  is  finally  taken 
to  the  measuring  machine  and  careful  measurements  are 
made  of  its  exact  form  and  shape  which  not  only  enable 


170  T  Ji  e      Wa  shin  g  to  n 

the  staff  to  dclcniiinc  whether  tlie  model  represents  the 
lines  desired,  but  gives  an  exact  record  of  the  actual 
shape. 

The  model  is  now  ready  for  the  towing  experiments. 
The  carriage  runs  upon  eight  wheels  and  spans  the  full 
width  of  the  basin.  The  platform  in  the  center,  carry- 
ing the  recording  apparatus,  can  be  raised  or  lowered  at 
will.  Electricity  is  used  to  drive  the  carriage,  and  it 
maj'  be  mentioned  incidentally  that  it  is  used  for  all 
mechanical  work  in  connection  with  the  model  tank. 
The  speed  of  the  carriage  is  varied  not  only  by  making 
various  combinations  of  the  four  motors — one  to  each 
pair  of  driving  wdieels — but  by  controlling  the  output  of 
the  generator  in  the  power  station,  which  is,  perhaps,. 
lOO  yards  from  the  tank.  This  control  is  on  the  Ward- 
Leonard  system  and  is  very  similar  to  that  used  to  con- 
trol the  motion  of  heavy  turrets  on  board  ship.  By 
means  of  a  resistance  box  on  the  carriage  the  current 
through  the  field  coil  windings  of  the  generator  is  in- 
creased or  decreased  at  will.  The  revolutions  of  the 
generator  being  kept  constant  by  a  delicate  governor, 
tlie  amount  of  current  generated  varies  with  the  amount 
of  current  through  the  field  coils  of  the  magnet.  The 
whole  of  the  current  generated  is  passed  through  the 
motors,  and  in  practice  it  is  found  that  a  very  exact 
regulation  of  speed  is  obtained  by  this  combination. 
The  carriage  itself,  with  its  fittings,  weighs  in  the 
neighborhood  of  25  tons,  so  that  it  alone  forms  a  kind 
of  flywheel  and  is  not  subject  to  sudden  variations  of 
speed.  The  speed  of  the  carriage  can  be  varied  from 
i-io  knot  an  hour,  or  10  feet  per  minute  to  20  knots  an 
hour,  or  2.000  feet  per  minute.  The  principal  difficulty 
in  connection  wnth  the  use  of  high  speeds,  which,  while 
not  necessary  for  the  bulk  of  the  experiments,  will  be  of 
great  value  in  certain  special  experiments,  is  to  stop  the 
carriage  when  it  is  once  under  way.  The  electrical  con- 
trol acts  as  a  brake,  because  when  the  current  is  shut 
off  the  motors  become  generators,  but  this  could  not  be 
relied  upon  for  high  speeds,  since  the  sudden  rush  of 
current  due  to  possible  unskillful  manipulation,  might 
throw  the  circuit  breakers,  thus  opening  the  circuit  and 


Electrical     Handbook  171 

cutting  off  the  current  entirely.  For  these  reasons  tliere 
is  at  the  north,  or  terminal  end  of  the  basin,  a  double 
system  of  brakes  to  catch  and  stop  the  carriage.  The 
first  is  a  friction  brake  consisting  of  two  strips  of  iron 
on  either  side  pressed  together  by  hydraulic  cylinders. 
Those  are  forced  apart  by  a  slipper  on  the  carriage 
about  10  feet  long,  which,  as  well  as  the  brake  strips,  is 
kept  thoroughly  oiled,  so  that  the  coefficient  of  friction 
for  stopping,  though  low,  is  fairly  definite,  and  sudden 
jerks  are  avoided.  The  pressure  in  the  hydraulic  cylin- 
ders is  controlled  by  an  accumulator  and  a  pump  driven 
by  electricity.  Great  care  has  been  taken  in  connection 
with  this  part  of  the  installation  that  it  may  be  always 
in  working  order,  and  any  trouble  or  breakdown,  ex- 
cept that  of  the  pump  itself,  which  runs  all  the  time, 
will  simply  result  in  setting  the  pressure  at  a  max- 
imum. This  maximum  is  600  pounds,,  but  it  has  been 
found  by  actual  experiment  that  with  500  pounds  pres- 
sure the  carriage  is  brought  safely  to  rest  when  it  enters 
the  1)rakes  at  a  speed  of  20  knots.  It  is  not  expected 
in  practice  to  repeat  this  often,  since  even  for  the  high 
speed  runs  the  electrical  brake  will  be  used  to  reduce 
the  speed  of  the  carriage  before  the  friction  brake  is 
used.  In  addition  to  the  friction  brake  there  is  what  is 
called  the  emergency  brake,  so  that  in  case  the  friction 
brake  fails  for  any  reason  the  carriage  would  still  be 
caught.  This  brake  consists  simply  of  a  piston  about 
16  inches  in  diameter,  working  in  a  cylinder  which  is 
submerged  in  the  water  of  the  tank  and  connected  by 
wire  cables  to  a  hook  which  takes  hold  of  the  carriage. 
The  head  of  the  cylinder  has  a  round  hole,  and  the 
piston  rod  is  tapered  so  that  as  the  rod  is  drawn  out  by 
the  motion  of  the  carriage  the  hole  is  gradually  closed, 
the  whole  being  almost  exactly  upon  the  principle  of 
the  hydraulic  gun  recoil  brake.  An  escape  is  provided 
for  the  water  around  the  piston  when  it  starts  from 
rest,  to  avoid  sudden  acceleration  of  the  whole  mass 
of  water  in  the  cylinder. 

The  dynamometric  apparatus  is  designed  to  avoid  en- 
tirely the  use  of  multiplying  levers  or  other  devices  in- 
volving the  possibility  of  friction,  and  here  again  elec- 


172  The      Washington 

tricity  is  enlisted.  The  recording  drum  is,  as  usual, 
fitted  with  apparatus  for  recording  the  time  and  dis- 
tance. The  resistance  is  measured  directly  by  a  spring 
arrangement,  which  is  placed  underneath  the  carriage. 
The  forward  end  of  the  spring  is  attached  to  a  bracket 
which  is  screwed  forward  or  back  by  an  electric  motor, 
and  a  rigid  arm  runs  up  from  the  bracket,  with  a  pencil 
recording  its  position  on  the  drum.  The  record  then  is 
of  the  position  of  the  forward  bracket.  The  after  end 
of  the  spring  takes  hold  of  a  small  cross-head,  to  the 
other  end  of  which  again  is  attached  a  towing  rod, 
which  takes  hold  of  the  model.  This  cross-head  has  a 
very  slight  play  between  stops  in  the  after  fixed  bracket, 
and  when  it  touches  either  stop  closes  an  electrical  con- 
tact, which  again  throws  an  electric  clutch,  by  means  of 
which  the  motor,  running  all  the  time,  screws  fir  ward 
or  back  the  forward  bracket,  thus  increasing  or  decreas- 
ing the  tension  of  the  spring  until  the  contact  i>  opened 
again. 

There  are  many  refinements  which  cannot  be  indi- 
cated in  this  brief  description:  for  instance,  tie  operator 
can  throw  either  clutch  at  will  or  set  them  to  work 
automatically.  In  practice,  when  about  to  make  a  run. 
the  operator  works  the  bracket  forward  to  the  imme- 
diate vicinity  of  the  position  which  he  knows  it  will 
assume  during  the  run,  the  approxiate  speed  of  which 
he  knows.  The  carriage  is  then  started,  and  after  a 
uniform  speed  has  been  obtained,  which,  for  speeds  up 
to  12  knots,  is  done  within  50  feet,  he  throws  in  by  a 
single  motion  of  one  handle  the  automatic  appliances 
which  start  the  drum,  and  record  time,  distance  and  re- 
sistance. In  this  way  the  resistance  pen  has  to  move 
but  a  small  distance  to  reach  the  position  of  equilibrium 
and  almost  immediately  becomes  steady.  It  will  be  seen 
that  with  this  device  friction  is  eliminated.  The  accu- 
racy obtainable  depends  upon  the  closeness  with  which 
the  automatic  stops  at  the  after  end  of  the  spring  can 
be  set.  In  practice  it  is  found  that  those  can  be  set  to 
give  a  play  of  about  1-50  of  an  inch,  and  as  the  springs 
will  extend  10  inches,  the  results  obtained  are  practically 
exact  as  indicating  the  pull  of  the  spring. 


Electrical     J  la  n  d  boo  k  1  /  3 

It  now  remains  to  describe  the  method  by  which  the 
amount  of  this  pull  can  be  determined  in  any  instance. 
There  is  fitted  at  the  starting  end  of  the  basin  a  kind  of 
weighing  machine  with  one  vertical  and  one  horizontal 
arm.  This  is  delicately  balanced,  and  when  the  model 
has  been  connected  up  and  is  ready  for  towing,  a  cer- 
tain spring  being  in  use,  the  vertical  arm,  or  rather  a 
knife  edge  which  bears  upon  the  vertical  arm,  is  con- 
nected to  the  model.  A  known  weight  is  then  put  into 
the  scale  pan  attached  to  the  horizontal  arm.  The  auto- 
matic attachment  in  connection  with  the  dynamometer 
spring  is  thrown  into  gear  and  the  weighing  machine  is 
screwed  forward  or  backward  until  it  is  in  perfect  bal- 
ance, and  the  record  pen  recording  the  position  of  the 
spring  is  at  rest.  It  is  evident  then  that  the  pull  of  the 
spring  is  exactly  equal  to  the  weight  in  the  scale  pan. 
There  are  a  number  of  pens  which  can  be  shifted  par- 
allel to  the  recording  pen  and  set  in  a  definite  position 
to  record  upon  tlio  drum.  One  of  tliese  pens  is  set  to 
correspond  to  the  position  of  the  resistance  pen,  then 
another  weight  is  put  into  the  scale  pan.  a  second  pen 
set  to  record  the  resistance,  and  so  nn.  It  is  evident 
then  that  when  the  run  is  made  the.se  lixed  pens  mark 
off  upon  the  paper  a  scale  for  resistance,  avoiding  all 
complications  of  corrections  for  temperature  of  spring 
or  anything  else.  A  complete  double  outfit  of  springs  is 
already  provided  for  measuring  resistance  from  i  up  to 
500  pounds,  and  for  special  work  additional  special 
springs  will  be  obtained. 

In  connection  with  the  question  of  temperature,  it  is 
impossible  to  avoid  a  certain  variation  of  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  water,  but  as  ample  heating  facilities  are 
provided,  as  indicated  in  the  pictures  of  the  building, 
where  the  heater  pipes  are  shown,  it  is  not  expected 
that  the  variation  of  temperature  during  the  year  will 
be  sufficient  to  necessitate  correction  in  the  results  of 
experiments  on  this  account.  The  basin  is  filled  from 
the  water  system  of  Washington,  and  will  hold  1.000,000 
gallons.  Two  electrical  centrifugal  pumps  are  provided, 
the  larger  of  which  will  empty  the  tank  in  about  four 
hours.      The   smaller  pump  is   a  4-inch   pump   used   for 


17  J/.  The      W  a  s  ]i  i  n  g  t  0  n 

draining  the  last  water  from  the  basin  and  also  for 
pumping  the  water  from  outside  the  basin  to  avoid  the 
possibility  of  undue  pressure  upon  it  in  case  it  is  left 
empty  for  some  time.  This  is  necessary,  since  the  basin 
is  but  a  short  distance  from  the  Potomac  River,  and 
extends  8  or  9  feet  below  mean  low  tide  level.  A  gauge 
indicates  the  level  of  the  outside  water,  which  is  found 
to  be,  as  a  rule,  about  6  feet  below  the  water  in  the 
basin. 

The  leakage  from  the  basin,  which  is  very  slight,  and 
the  evaporation  are  made  up  with  filtered  water,  an  ani- 
mal bone  filter  being  installed  with  a  capacity  of  from 
50  to  100  gallons  per  minute,  depending  upon  the  tur- 
bidity of  the  water.  In  practice  a  small  stream  of  fresh 
filtered  water  is  kept  running  into  the  basin  all  the  time, 
and  the  level  is  maintained  wherever  desired  by  an  ad- 
justable overflow. 


Electrical     H  a  n  d  h  o  o  k         175 


ELECTRICITY    IN   THE    GOVERNMENT 
PRINTING  OFFICE. 

NOT  only  with  respect  to  external  dimensions  and 
lloor  si)ace.  but  in  regard  also  to  number  of  em- 
ployees and  extent  of  output,  the  Government 
Printing  Office  in  this  city,  is  fully  en- 
titled to  claim  the  distinction  of  being  the  largest 
printing  office  in  the  world.  To  the  visiting  electrical 
engineer  it  is  more  than  gratifying  to  note  how  with 
remarkable  boldness,  but  with  corresponding  judgment 
and  discretion,  electricity  has  been  called  upon  to  dis- 
charge all  the  vital  functions  of  light  and  power,  as  well 
as  to  furnish  heat  in  a  novel  and  convenient  manner. 
The  display  of  the  flexibility  and  resourcefulness  of 
•electricity  in  all  parts  of  the  plant  is,  indeed,  a  fasci- 
nating study.  The  work  here  is  done  in  such  a  way  as 
would  have  rejoiced  the  heart  of  him  w'ho  was  at  once 
this  country's  typical  printer  and  pioneer  master  elec- 
trician— Benjamin  Franklin  himself. 

Standing  in  a  section  of  the  capital  otherwise  devoid 
of  large  buildings,  the  huge  office  is  a  notable  land- 
mark. It  is  of  red  brick,  with  terra  cotta  and  sand- 
stone trimming,  has  a  175-foot  front  on  North  Capitol 
Street  and  a  408-foot  front  on  G  Street,  and  has  a  height 
of  seven  stories,  exclusive  of  a  deep  basement  and  loft. 
The  stories  are  16  feet  apart  from  floor  to  floor.  It  is 
liuilt  around  a  30xi67-foot  court,  which  is  closed  at  one 
end  with  the  power  house.  Over  12,000,000  pounds  of 
steel  were  used  in  the  framework,  which  is  covered 
chiefly  with  fire  brick,  and  the  substratum  of  all  the 
floors  is  brick  concrete.  Only  in  the  main  entrance  is 
there  any  magnificence  of  decoration.  Here  is  orna- 
mental work  in  gold,  tile  and  mosaic,  marble  panelings 
and  stairways,  with  a  pedestal  to  be  occupied  probably 
by  an  heroic  bust  of  Franklin.  Elsewhere  in  the  build- 
ing everything  is  severe  and  strong  in  construction,  for 
nse.  not  show. 


] 76  T }i  ('.     I V a s  li,  incjton 

The  annual  expenditure  of  $6,500,000  seems  fabulous 
until  we  have  seen  an  analysis  of  the  work  done  and 
the  stock  carried  by  the  office.  When  we  find  over  4,000 
employees,  to  say  nothing  of  visitors  and  business  call- 
ers, we  appreciate  the  necessity  for  the  eight  electric 
passenger  elevators,  all  of  which  could  handle  the  whole 
crowd  from  the  first  to  the  top  floor  every  twenty  min- 
utes. 

When  we  learn  that  the  annual  consumption  of  paper, 
for  book  printing  alone,  is  100,000  reams  flat,  and  iio,- 
000  reams  in  rolls  ;  that  3,000,000  sheets  of  Bristol  and 
cardboard  are  used;  that  1.700  reams  of  cover  paper, 
35,000  reams  of  writing  paper,  1,700  reams  of  typewriter 
paper,  4,700  reams  of  manila  and  tissue  paper,  and  10,000 
reams  of  coated  book  paper  are  used  each  year — then 
we  grasp  the  utility  of  the  five  big  freight  elevators,  all 
electric.  One  of  these  at  the  sidewalk,  to  carry  paper 
from  the  basement  to  the  first  floor,  will  lift  6,000 
pounds  100  feet  a  minute.  Another  of  the  freight  ele- 
vators has  a  capacity  of  10,000  pounds  150  feet  a  minute. 
The  other  three  will  handle  5,000  pounds  350  feet  a 
minute.  It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  the  office  in  ele- 
vators alone  has  the  capacity  of  a  good-sized  electric 
railway  for  passengers  and  freight  and  needs  it  all. 

From  the  standpoint  of  output,  the  facts  are  again  ex- 
traordinary. From  30  to  35  tons  of  paper  are  consumed 
by  presses  all  run  by  electric  motors.  Some  700,000 
volumes  of  departmental  reports  are  carried  in  store. 
An  incidental  item  is  "The  Congressional  Record," 
with  a  present  daily  circulation,  which  is  being  in- 
creased, of  23.000,  while  Congress  sits,  a  single  is- 
sue having  reached  192  pages.  This  must  catch  the 
mail  trains  at  al)Out  5.30  A.  M.  Then  the  office 
is  in  constant  readiness  for  sudden  demands  made 
by  Congress.  The  famous  report  of  the  blowing  up  of 
the  Maine  is  an  instance.  Consisting  of  298  pages  of 
text,  24  full  page  engravings  and  one  lithograph  in  col- 
ors, the  manuscript  was  received  at  6.30  P.  M.  one  day, 
and  the  printed  report  lay  on  every  desk  in  the  Senate 
and  House  next  morning  at  10.  Besides  other  period- 
icals, such  as  "The  Patent  Office  Gazette,"  arc  the  mil- 


Electrical     Ha  n  d  b  o  o  k         177 

lions  of  pamphlet  reprints  from  tlie  "Record,"  which  the 
law-makers  so  generously  scatter  among  their  constitu- 
ents. Then  there  are  the  bills  and  resolutions,  of  which 
the  Senate  during  the  last  session  ordered  printed  8,025 
and  the  House  18,420;  of  these  only  1,384  became  law*. 
The  Printing  Oflfice  has  had  at  one  time  twenty  tons  of 
tine  type  and  rule  work  standing  for  the  Census  Office. 
The  storage  vaults  under  the  sidewalks  have  a  capacity 
of  2,000,000  electrotype  plates. 

On  almost  every  floor  special  electric  circuits  have 
had  to  be  run  to  some  piece  of  apparatus  or  line  of  ma- 
chines. Thus  for  complexity  of  distribution  it  would  be 
hard  to  match  the  electrical  equipment  of  the  office, 
whose  daily  consumption  of  current  compares  with  that 
of  a  large  central  station. 

Power  Plant. 

The  power  i)lant  of  the  Printing  Office  is  tfanked  by 
the  old  and  new  wings,  which  together  form  the  presevit 
establishment.  The  power-house  is  a  brick  building 
112x134  feet  in  plan,  and  is  divided  longitudinally  be- 
tween the  engine  and  generator  room  and  the  boiler 
room.  While  in  a  sense  of  evolutional  growth,  the 
plant  is  essentially  a  well-planned  unit  as  it  stands. 
The  iirst  plant  was  put  in  some  years  ago  in  the  old 
building,  and  proving  successful,  but  outgrown,  it  was 
abandoned  and  a  new  power-house  was  erected.  The 
work  of  moving  was  a  difficult  undertaking,  as  it  had  to 
be  done  without  interfering  with  the  operation 
of  the  plant.  It  was  effected,  however,  very 
snK)othly  by  tlie  chief  electrician  and  electrical  engi- 
neer, and  the  chief  engineer.  The  plant  then 
installed  was  adequate  to  the  requirements  of  the 
old  office  and  consisted  of  one  300  kilowatt,  125 
volt  generator,  running  at  150  revolutions  per  minute, 
and  one  125  kilowatt  generator  of  same  voltage  and 
speed,  both  generators  being  built  by  the  Crocker- 
Wheeler  Company,  and  both  engines  by  the  E.  P. 
Allis  Company.  When  extensions  to  take  care 
of  the  new  office  came  up,  one  of  the  most 
important     problems     was     that     of     continuing      the 


178  The    Washington 

lower  voltage  or  of  adopting  250  volts.  It  was  finally 
decided  to  adhere  to  the  old  pressure  of  125  volts,  and 
the  additional  contract  was  placed  for  two  more  Crocker- 
Wheeler  generators  of  600  kilowatt  capacity,  100  revolu- 
tions per  minute,  and  two  engines  of  corresponding 
capacit}'.  These  generators,  of  the  multipolar  type,  were 
required  to  he  over-compounded  5  per  cent.,  at  full  load, 
with  series  coils  so  proportioned  as  to  over-compound 
by  regular  equal  increments  proportional  to  the  output 
between  one-quarter  and  full  load,  with  a  maximum 
variation  at  generator  terminals  not  exceeding  i^  volts 
when  running  within  lYz  per  cent,  of  standard  speed, 
this  over-compounding  being  reduced  in  the  regular  op- 
eration of  the  plant  to  3  per  cent,  by  the  use  of  German 
silver  shunts  to  the  series  fields.  The  compounding  is 
also  so  arranged  as  to  permit  the  generator,  after  having 
"built  up"  and  when  running  at  staindard  voltage,  being 
thrown  in  circuit  and  taking  its  proper  proportion  of 
the  total  load.  The  generators  have  a  guaranteed  ef- 
ficiency of  94  per  cent,  at  full  load,  and  will  withstand 
an  overload  of  25  per  cent,  continuously  for  four  hours, 
as  well  as  momentary  overloads  of  50  per  cent.  At  25 
per  cent,  overload  the  efficiency  is  93V2  per  cent. 

The  four  engines  are  all  cross  compound  direct-con- 
nected, the  smaller  ones  being  respective!}'  10x19x30  and 
16x30x30;  while  the  two  new  larger  ones  are  of  the 
same  size,  namely,  22x44x42.  The  small  machines  are 
arranged  to  run  150  revolutions  per  minute,  and  are 
supplied  with  steam  at  125  pounds  pressure,  exhausting 
into  barometric  condensers.  The  engines  are  fitted  with 
automatic  valve  gear,  and  have  separate  eccentrics  for 
operating  the  steam  and  exhaust  valves  on  the  low- 
pressure  side.  The  regulator  is  of  the  standard  heavy 
weight  t3'pe,  operating  the  cut-of¥  cams  of  both  engines, 
and  having  in  conjunction  a  safety  stop,  which  guards 
the  engine  in  case  of  the  breakage  of  the  governor  belt. 
A  variation  of  less  than  2  per  cent,  is  guaranteed  be- 
tween no  load  and  full  load. 

In  addition  to  the  governor  belt  safety  stop,  there  is 
provided  an  extra  governor  which  operates  a  stop  valve 
placed  above  the  throttle  valve  in   the   steam  pipe,  so 


Electrical      Handbook         179 

tliat  if  the  engine  reaches  a  speed  of  five  revolutions 
al)ove  normal,  this  valve  is  released  and  closes,  thus 
shutting  off  all  steam  to  the  cylinder. 

As  will  he  noted,  all  these  handsome  gen- 
erator units  are  generously  spaced  with  plenty  of 
elbow  room  within  the  brass  rail  that  divides  them 
off  from  the  rest  of  the  spacious  hall  and  from  the 
switchboard,  a  view  of  all  being  commanded  by  a  broad 
galler}'  from  which  stairs  run  down  to  the  main  floor. 
Each  generating  unit  foundation  contains  an  opening  by 
which  an  attendant  can  reach  the  anchor  bearing  plate 
and  end  of  the  bolt ;  and,  indeed,  the  clear  basement 
space  affords  freest  access  all  around  the  foundations, 
which,  by  the  way,  are  solid  to  a  degree  and  remarkably 
free  from  tremor.  The  receivers  between  the  cylinders 
of  the  engines  are  in  the  basement,  but  the  piping  con- 
nections of  the  low-pressure  cylinders  are,  as  will  be 
noted,  largely  above  the  engine  floor.  The  exhaust  pipe 
lietween  the  high-pressure  cylinder  and  receiver  is  also 
in  the  basement,  but  rises  into  the  engine  room,  where 
the  passage  of  steam  to  the  low-pressure  cylinder  is 
controlled.  The  live  steam  comiection  to  the  low-pres- 
sure cylinder  leads  into  this  pipe  and  has  a  stop  and 
reducing  valve.  The  exhaust  pipe  line  from  each  engine 
runs  in  the  basement  to  the  partition  wall  and  rises  in 
each  case  to  an  independent  condenser  above  the  roof, 
being  fitted  with  a  back  pressure  relief  valve  for  the  es- 
cape of  steam  in  case  the  corresponding  condenser 
should  be  out  of  commission.  A  syphon  condenser  is 
used,  with  27-inch  \acuum,  and  there  are  thus 
three  lines  of  piping  that  rise  against  the  wall  at  the 
rear  of  each  engine — one  the  exhaust,  one  for  the  injec- 
tion water  from  the  District  supply  lifted  to  the  con- 
densers by  the  supply  pressure,  and  one  for  the  dis- 
charge from  the  condenser,  going  to  a  hot  well  tank  in 
the  basement,  whence  it  is  pumped  to  six  attic  tanks  for 
house  and  toilet  flushing,  an  aggregate  capacity  of  some 
4.000  gallons  being  thus  furnished. 


Direct  Connected  Matrix  Trimmer,  Government  Printing  Office. 


Electrical      Handbook         181 

Boiler  Room. 

Before  passing  to  consider  other  details  of  the  gen- 
erator room,  note  must  he  made  here  of  the  hoiler 
plant,  which  is  of  somewhat  unusual  type  in  this 
class  of  work,  and  which  comprises  eight  300  horse- 
power marine  type  Scotch  boilers.  These  boilers  arc 
built  for  a  working  pressure  of  150  pounds,  under  the 
direction  of  United  States  supervising  inspectors  for 
steam  boilers,  and  steam  is  supplied  through  an  8-incli 
dry  pipe  and  nozzle  to  the  main  line  of  steam  pipes. 

Switchboard,  Etc. 

The  main  features  of  the  hoiler.  engine  and  generator 
equipment  having  been  considered,  it  is  time  to  speak  of 
the  other  not  less  important  parts  of  the  plant, 
such  as  the  switchboard,  which  itself  constitutes  a 
striking  element  of  the  ensemble.  It  will  have  been 
gathered  from  what  has  been  said  that  the  Printing  Of- 
fice is  one  of  the  show  places  ofc  Washington,  and  the 
power-house  is  a  part  which  visitors  always  take  in. 
The  handsome  .skylighted  room  is  very  light,  not  only 
because  of  the  glass  monitor  roof,  but  on  account  of  *he 
interior  lining  of  glazed  white  brick  to  a  height  of  9 
feet,  with  red-faced  brick  above.  The  gallery  floor  and 
that  of  the  engine  room  in  front  of  the  switchboard  and 
around  the  side  is  of  marble  mosaic  in  figured  panels; 
while  within  the  brass  railing  around  the  generating 
units  the  floor  is  composed  of  cast-iron  plates.  The  roof 
trusses  and  the  traveling  crane  are  painted  in  an  agree- 
ably cool  shade  of  green,  and  the  total  effect  of  the  room 
is  excellent,  the  machinery  and  the  switchboard  being 
set  off  in  artistic  relief.  The  crane  is  an  electric  one  of 
25  tons  capacity  and  supported  by  columns  of  6-inch 
heavy  wrought-iron  pipe  filled  with  concrete  set  about 
14  feet  apart.  The  girders  are  braced  to  the  structural 
framework  of  the  building,  and  these  lateral  braces  sup- 
port the  .steam  header  in  the  room. 

The  switchboard  is  of  a  pinkish  gray  Ten- 
nessee marble.  ^2  feet  long  and  9  feet  high,  standing 
aliout  6  feet  from  the  wall  and  accessible  from  both 
ends.     There  are  two  sets  of  bus-bars,  one  for  light  and 


18'^  The    Was  king  to  n 

one  for  power,  and  this  subdivision  of  service  is  main- 
tained throughout  the  building,  although  the  generating 
switches   are    double-throw,   so   that   any   generator   can 
take  care  of  either  set.     These  switches  are  also  double- 
pole,    the   equalizer    switches    being    separate.      A   5.000 
ampere    tie-in    switch    has    also    been    provided    of    the 
circuit-breaker   type   without  the  automatic   tripper,   for 
connecting  the   two   sets   of  busses   together.     There   is 
likewise    a    large    single-pole,    single-throw    switch    for 
connecting    together     the    light    and     power    equalizer 
busses,  in  case  two  generators  should  be  operating  one 
on  light  and  the  other  on  power  with  the  tie-in  switch 
closed.      Each    of   the    feeder    switches    is    double-pole, 
double-throw,  so  that  they  can  be  independently  thrown 
on  either  set  of  bus-bars.     The  board  is  virtually  in  two 
sections,  the  latest  section,  for  control  of  supply  in  the 
new  building,  consisting  of  nine  panels,  with   a  length 
of    34    feet — two    generator    panels    and    seven    feeder. 
Here  the  feeder  switches  are  in  two  rows.     One  set  of 
busses  ex'tends   along  the   middle   of  the   panels   in  the 
rear  of  the  board,  with   connections  to  feed  both  rows 
of  switches,  the  upper  ones  when  the  switches  are  in  the 
down   position   and  the   lower   ones  when   the   switches 
are  in  the  up  position.     The  other  group  of  bus-bars  is 
subdivided  into  two  sets,  one  for  the  upper  position  of 
the  upper  row  of  switches  and  the  other  with  less  cop- 
per  being  installed  only   as   a   safety  provision   for  the 
lower  position  of  the  lower  row.     All  the  feeders  are 
protected  by  circuit-breakers  mounted  on  marble  panels 
at  the   rear  of  the  board,   and  the  generators   also   are 
protected  by   circuit-breakers   behind   the   board,   which 
can  be  thrown  by  means  of  push  buttons  on  the   front 
of   the   board.      These    breakers   consist    of    two    5,000- 
ampere     double-pole     circuit-breakers ;     28     double-pole 
breakers  of  300  amperes ;  and  28  double-pole  600-ampere 
breakers.    The  contract  on  the  new  board  called  for  the 
two    5,000-ampere,    double-throw    knife    switches ;    two 
5,000-ampere    double-pole    single-throw   knife    switches : 
one  5,000-ampere,  single-pole,  single-throw,  and  56  600- 
ampere  double-pole  double-throw  knife  switches,  all  of 


Electrical     handbook         18S 

which  are  of  special  design,  hand  tinished,  while  the 
clamping  nuts,  hus  connections,  etc.,  have  ground  con- 
tacts. 

The  new  section  alone  of  the  hoard  carries  about 
25,000  pounds  of  copper  exclusive  of  the  measuring  in- 
struments, which  include  two  illuminated  dial  volt- 
meters 0-150  volt;  one  illuminated  differential  volt- 
meter; two  illuminated  ammeters  0-6,000  amperes;  one 
illuminated  ammeter,  0-5,000  amperes;  20  round  pattern 
ammeters,  0-500  amperes;  and  8  round  ammeters  0-750 
amperes.  The  leads  of  the  two  large  generators  are  also 
brought  out  to  two  Thomson  recording  wattmeters, 
each  with  a  capacity  of  5,000  amperes,  at  125  volts.  A 
tell-tale  panel  of  all  wattmeters  is  placed  also  in  the 
office  of  the  chief  electrician,  who  has  spacious 
quarters,  with  filing  cases  and  other  adjuncts,  on  one  of 
the  main  Hoors  near  by.  A  daily  log  is  carefully  kept 
of  current  output,  based  on  15-minute  readings,  and 
checking  up  eacli  1)ranch  of  supi)Iy.  Some  idea  of  the 
work  done  can  be  formed  from  the  fact  that  the  recent 
daily  load  in  December,  when  the  new  building  had 
hardly  got  into  shape,  has  been  from  8,200  to  8,900 
kilowatt-hours  daily,  and  that  during  November  the  to- 
tal output  was  not  less  than  167,000  kilowatt-hours. 

The  board  itself  is  bound  by  handsome  heavy  copper 
moulding,  with  iron  framework,  and  angle-iron  braces, 
cable  carriers,  etc.,  all  of  which  were  given  two  coats  of 
the  best  asphaltum  paint.  Every  detail  of  the  board  has 
been  most  carefully  planned  out  for  safety  and  perfect 
finish.  No  electrolytic  copper  was  allowea,  all  being 
pure  Lake  rolled  hard-drawn,  or  soft-drawn,  according 
to  the  part.  Bolts  used  in  making  the  electrical  con- 
nections are  made  from  hard-drawn  brass  rod,  with  solid 
heads,  and  all  flanged  nuts  are  of  pure  cast  copper.  All 
finish  on  the  front  of  the  board,  of  switches,  brackets  and 
connections,  is  "drawn  file  finish  ;"  all  surface  contacts  are 
made  with  ground  joints,  and  all  edges  are  champered 
3-64  inch.  Standard  requirements  in  every  respect 
pushed  to  their  limit  have  been  deemed  none  too  good 
for  the  board  and  its  accessories,  in  view  of  the  impera- 
tive necessity  of  maintaining  service  at  all  times  .under 
all  contingencies. 


Electrical      Handbook         J  So 

liack  (if  tlic  hoard  oxti.'niK  a  nililicr-covercd  walk  and 
a  ladder  drops  down  to  the  (.'n,u,ini'  room  hascnicnl, 
where  the  system  of  distrihiition  from  the  hoard  may  i)c 
said  to  heg'in. 

Power  Distribution. 

All  extensive  article  could  he  written  upon  this  suh- 
ject.  invohing-  as  it  does  details  of  wiring,  distrihuting 
hoards,  conduit  cahles,  etc.,  in  prohahly  larger  array 
than  ft)und  in  an\-  other  huilding  installation  in  the 
country.  An  idea  of  its  magnitude  is  ohtained,  how- 
ever, when  we  consider  the  material  used  in  this  elec- 
trical work,  including  13.094  linear  feet  of  terra  conduit; 
55,068  feet  of  fle.xihle  metal  conduit;  14,000  pieces  of 
lead  hushing  for  the  flcxihle  conduit;  1,822  from  outlet 
and  junction  hoxes ;  8,248  pieces  of  enameled  pipe;  T45,- 
811  httings  of  all  kinds;  394,,y5  feet  of  wire  of  all 
classes,  or  ahout  75  miles;  1,649  C.  S.  switches;  91  dis- 
trihuting centers;  1,490  feet  of  lead  tubing  and  807  feet 
of  ■>4-inch  black  pipe,  1,490  cut-outs;  2  automatic 
switches;  and  i,,3io  castings  of  all  kinds. 

Press  Driving. 

The  Government  Printing  Office  was  one  of  the  tirst 
establishments  to  take  up  the  direct  application  of  mo- 
tors to  printing  machinery,  and  a  more  thorough  study 
of  the  subject  has  proliably  lieen  made  at  this  plant  than 
at  any  other  plant  of  the  same  character  in  the  world. 
Before  the  purchase  of  the  motors,  a  complete  investi- 
gation was  instituted  by  the  Public  Printer.  As 
there  were  only  a  few  establishments  in  which  motors 
had  been  applied  direct  to  printing  machinery, 
a  comparatively  small  amount  of  data  could  be 
gathered,  and  therefore  many  of  the  methods 
of  application  were  original.  The  tirst  speci- 
fications issued  by  the  Government  Printing  Office  cov- 
ered the  furnishing  of  a  lot  of  about  sixtj'  motors  and 
four  generators  and  a  switchboard.  The  motors  were 
wound  for  a  pressure  of  120  volts,  this  voltage  being 
decided  upon  from  the  fact  that  a  large  part  of  the  load 
was  lighting,  and  it  was  desired  not  to  have  separate 
generators  for  operating  the  motors. 


180  The     W  a  sh  i  ng  t  on 

In  the  original  installation  the  motors  in  practically 
all  cases  were  geared  to  the  respective  macliines,  this 
method  of  application  being  at  that  time  considered  the 
most  advantageous. 

In  the  case  of  a  numl^er  of  ruling  machines,  some  spe- 
cial speed  reducers  were  employed  and  the  motors  of 
one-sixth  horse-power  capacity  were  coupled  direct  to 
the  reducers.  There  were  about  thirty  of  these  com- 
binations installed  at  that  time.  In  controlling  the  speed 
of  the  motors  applied  to  the  various  presses  and  other 
machines  where  variation  in  speed  was  desired,  resist- 
ance in  series  with  the  armature  was  employed,  in  most 
cases  resistance  being  separate  from  the  controller. 
The  controller  was  placed  in  a  position  convenient  to 
the  operator.  In  a  few  instances  it  was  found  advisable 
to  install  a  motor  driving  a  group  of  machines  such  as 
that  in  the  electrotype  foundry.  At  that  time  it  was  not 
deemed  wise  to  attempt  to  apply  motors  to  individual 
machines  where  they  differed  in  character  to  such  :\u 
extent,  and  especially  as  to  the  question  of  speed. 

As  a  result  of  the  benefits  shown  by  the  introduction 
of  electric  power,  particularly  from  the  point  of  in- 
creased output,  motors  were  added  from  time  to  time 
until  practically  all  shafting  in  the  old  buildings  was 
eliminated.  In  some  of  the  later  installations  direct- 
connected  type  motors  were  used  in  driving  certain  types 
of  presses.  In  these  cases  the  motor  was  mounted  on 
the  press  shaft,  the  machine  being  bolted  directly  to  the 
frame  of  the  press.  In  some  of  these  installations,  field 
weakening,  besides  resistance  in  series  with  armature, 
was  introduced  and  found  satisfactory.  The  question  of 
reliability  being  an  important  factor,  instead  of  depend- 
ing on  fuses  to  protect  the  motors  in  case  of  excessive 
overloads,  it  was  decided  to  protect  each  motor  with 
a  circuit-breaker.  This  has  been  found  to  be  an  ex- 
cellent  investment. 

The  new  office  is  the  most  complete  and  unique  plant 
of  its  size  in  this  or  any  country.  The  building  alone 
contains  over  600  motors  in  sizes  from  1-6  to  100 
horse-power.  In  the  new  equipment  many  novel 
methods      of      application     have      been      evolved,     this 


Electrical     Handbook         187 

being  particularly  true  of  the  electrotype  foundry, 
in  wliich  department  every  machine  is  individually 
driven  as  in  the  other  departments.  In  the  ap- 
plications of  motors  to  presses,  chain  drives  have  been 
largely  employed,  each  motor  being  placed  inside  of  the 
press.  In  the  new  building  there  is  absolutely  no 
shafting,  which  fact  strikes  one  very  forcibly  when 
making   an   inspection   of  the   plant. 

The  size  alone  is  not  the  only  feature  in  which  the 
present  plant  diflfers  from  its  predecessor.  Many  modi- 
fications have  been  introduced  in  the  method  of  drive ;  a 
large  number  of  belts  have  been  eliminated,  and  while 
at  an  earlier  time  gearing  was  regarded  as  the  only 
method  for  positive  driving,  and  was  in  all  cases  em- 
ployed where  it  was  desirable  to  avoid  slipping,  to-day 
but  few  gears  are  seen,  the  greater  per  cent,  of  them 
being  supplanted  by  chain  connections.  Perhaps  the 
highest  degree  to  which  the  perfecting  has  been  carried 
is  presented  in  the  few  cases  where  all  forms  of  inter- 
mediate connection,  whether  belt,  gear  or  chain,  have 
been  avoided  by  resorting  to  direct-connection  %vith  the 
motor  spindle.  There  are  cases,  however,  where  such  a 
scheme,  commendable  though  it  may  be,  is  entirely  out 
of  the  question.  Oftentimes  slipping  is  desirable,  espe- 
cially if  it  proves  to  be  the  means  of  saving  the  motor 
or  niacliine  from  excessive  shock  in  ordinary  running,  or 
even  more  serious  injury  in  case  of  accident. 

For  such  service  there  is  nothing  to  replace  the  old- 
fashioned  belt,  nor,  indeed,  is  there  much  to  be  said 
against  it  when  the  circumstances  of  the  machine's  con- 
struction or  situation  allow  for  a  reasonably  long  dis- 
tance between  pulley  centers,  for  then  the  tension  need 
not  be  excessive. 

A  feature  common  to  almost  all  the  equipments  is 
the  placing  of  the  motor  in  a  location  where  it  occupies 
the  least  useful  floor  space,  but  remains  accessible  for 
examining  or  repairing.  It  will  also  be  seen  that  the 
motor  is  incorporated  in  some  way  or  other  with  the 
machine  it  drives,  being  invariably  supported  indepen- 
dently of  the  floor,  walls  or  posts,  and  usually  on  a 
bracket  elevated  from  the  floor.     Still  another  feature  is 


188  The     Washington 

the  niountiiuT  of  the  controlling  apparatus  where  it  !■; 
handy,  and  at  the  same  time  protected  from  mechanical 
injury  or  from  contact  with  dirt,  chips,  or  in  short,  any- 
thing that  would  interrupt  or  interfere  with  its  proper 
operation. 

In  the  office  are  five  two-revolution  presses,  which 
are  remarkable  for  their  compactness  and  neat  appear- 
ance. The  same  quality  characterizes  the  driving  ele- 
ment and  the  manner  in  which  it  has  been  embodied. 
It  consists  of  a  5  horse-power  motor  located  just  under 
the  bed.  so  that  the  sprocket  by  which  it  drives  through 
a  silent  chain  to  the  machine  is  guarded  by  the  steps  and 
platform  at  the  side  of  the  press.  The  five  presses 
are  all  of  this  type. 

One  of  a  line  of  machines  of  a  larger  size  that  de- 
serves special  mention  is  a  flat-bed.  two-revolution  press, 
shown.  This  one  is  also  chain-driven  from  a 
motor,  in  this  case,  of  7J/2  horse-power.  The  press  has 
associated  with  it  an  automatic  paper  feeder,  which  is 
belt-driven  by  a  i  horse-power  bi-polar  motor.  Both  of 
these  motors  are  located  in  out-of-the-way  positions, 
and  practically  add  nothing  to  the  space  required  by  the 
machine  proper. 

Miscellaneous  Printing  Office  Work. 

So  much  for  press  drive.  While  it  constitutes  the 
more  important  side  of  the  plant  operations  and  the 
greatest  per  cent,  of  the  power  load,  it  causes  less  per- 
plexity in  the  matter  of  arranging  satisfactorily  than 
many  of  the  smaller  though  indispensable  machines, 
such,  for  example,  as  the  stitchers.  These  are 
connected  by  the  belt  with  I/2  horse-power  motors, 
mounted  on  brackets  wdiicli  are  bolted  to  the  supporting 
column  of  the  machine  near  the  base.  The  motor  starter 
is  mounted  on  the  left-hand  side  of  the  column,  so  that 
the  outfit  is  entireh'  self-contained,  and  the  floor  about 
the  base  is  easily  kept  free  from  litter. 

In  the  electrotyping  departments  two  low  voltage  gen- 
erating sets  supply  the  current.  These  consist  of  gen- 
•erators    direct-connected  to  and   mounted   on   the   same 


Electrical     Ha  a  d  b  o  o  k         189 

base  with  35  horse-power  motors.  Two  rapid  deposi- 
tors are  also  used  for  the  same  work.  After  the  forma- 
tion of  the  electrotype  plates  it  is  necessary  to  trim 
and  finish  them. 

Most  of  the  finishing  apparatus  is  belt-driven,  in  all 
cases  by  motors.  Each  machine  possesses  merits  of  its 
own  in  the  placing  of  the  parts  where  they  are  out  of 
the  way  and  protected,  yet  at  all  times  easily  accessible. 
The  advantage  of  avoiding  overhead  belts  is  strikingly 
indicated,  where,  if  thej^  were  to  be  group- 
driven,  their  number  and  close  spacing  would  make  the 
problem  an  intricate  one.  particularly  since  it  would  be 
necessary  to  limit  their  positions  to  allow  for  straight 
belt  lines. 

Arrangements  have  just  been  made  for  a 
further  important  addition  to  the  printing  press 
equipment  in  the  shape  of  the  new  Hoe  press 
to  get  out  tlie  larger  edition  now  required  of 
the  "Congressional  Record."  The  machine  is 
for  printing  and  folding  the  "Record."'  delivering  tlie 
product  in  signatures  of  eight  pages  at  the  rate  of  80,000 
per  hour,  or  sixteen  pages  at  the  rate  of  40.000  per  hour. 
It  is  constructed  on  the  rotary  principle,  printing  from 
curved  stereotyped  plates  upon  webs  of  paper  supplied 
from  two  rolls,  one  at  each  end  of  the  machine.  After 
being  printed  the  two  webs  are  associated  and  led  to  a 
cutting  and  folding  mechanism  located  midway  in  the 
length  of  the  machine,  from  which  the  sheets  are  deliv- 
ered upon  moving  aprons.  The  entire  length  of  the 
machine  is  24  feet;  height,  9  feet;  width,  6  feet.  The 
power  required  to  drive  the  machine  at  speed  is  30  horse- 
power, and  a  motor  of  standard  type,  making  825  revo- 
lutions per  minute,  is  employed,  placed  below  the  fold- 
ing and  delivery  mechanism  upon  the  bed  plate  of  the 
machine.  Another  motor  of  7^  horse-power,  875  revo- 
lutions per  minute,  is  also  used  at  times,  when  it  is  neces- 
sary to  move  the  press  slowly  (about  6  per  cent,  of  full 
speed),  in  order  to  "lead"'  the  paper. 


Electrical     Handbook         191 

Electric  Heating  Applications. 

Perhaps  the  application  of  the  motors  to  the  presses 
might  l)e  considered  next  to  tlie  elevators,  hut  there  are 
one  or  two  other  hranches  of  service  of  equal  interest 
if  not  equal  scope  which  fall  in  place  here  for  treatment. 
Most  striking  and  noteworthy  of  these  is  the  use  of 
electric  heating.  Unless  we  are  greatly  mistaken,  there 
is  here  in  service  one  of  the  largest  electric  heating  sys- 
tems in  the  world ;  certainly  the  largest  that  is  known 
in  the  field  of  printing  and  i)ulilication.  The  uses  of 
electric  heat  in  the  office  fall  broadly  into  two  groups  or 
clas.ses.  One  of  these  embraces  the  foundry  and  includes 
matrix  drying  tables,  wax  stripping  tables,  wax  melting 
kettles,  case  warming  cabinets,  "builders'  up"  tool  belt- 
ers, case  warming  table,  wax  knife  cutting  down  ma- 
chine, "sweating  on"  machine,  and  soldering  iron  heat- 
ers. The  other  class  in  the  bindery  includes  embossing 
and  stamping  press  heads,  glue  heater  equipments,  glue 
cookers,  case  making  machines,  finishers'  tool  heaters, 
book  cover  shaping  machines.  This  is  a  remarkable 
range,  but  in  addition  and  outside  these  divisions  we  find 
the  pamphlet  covering  machines,  the  sealing  wax  melt- 
ers  and  some  other  devices.  It  is  only  when  one  sees 
such  an  equipment  as  has  been  devised  for  and  brought 
together  in  the  Government  Printing  Office  that  one 
grasps  fully  the  idea  of  the  extraordinary  flexibility  and 
utility  of  electric  heating.  Such  heating  may  not  yet 
take  care  of  a  big  building,  but  in  such  special  applica- 
tions as  the.se  it  cannot  be  surpassed  or  equaled  for 
efficiency  and  econom}-. 

The  equipment  of  these  electrically  heated  appliances 
in  the  office  supplants  gas  and  steam  in  all  processes  ex- 
cepting the  stereotype  melting  pots,  which  are  heated  by 
gas.  Practically  all  apparatus  was  made  from 
new  designs,  with  careful  attention  to  me- 
chanical details,  and  with  large  factors  of  safety  elec- 
trically. The  specifications  of  the  controlling  appliances 
were  rigid,  and  necessitated  new  switch  designs 
giving  great  strength  and  durability.  The  switches 
are      mounted      upon      slate      slabs      and      protected 


192  The      Wa  shington 

by  iron  covers,  all  connections  being  soldered 
to  lugs.  The  slabs  are  mounted  upon  iron  or  slate  bases, 
so  that  every  precaution  may  be  taken  against  accident. 

In  cases  where  working  temperatures  are  moderate, 
the  apparatus  is  operated  on  117  volts.  Where  high  tem- 
peratures and  rapid  rates  of  impartivity  are  required, 
lower  variable  voltages  are  used.  These  are  secured  by 
translating  appliances  consisting  of  rotary  converters 
and  transformers  with  several  taps  on  secondaries.  The 
extreme  ranges  of  energy  density  in  various  appliances 
are  from  0.75  to  40  watts  per  square  inch  superficial  area. 

The  Matrix  Dr\'i)ig  Tables. — These  are  employed  for 
preparing  the  matrices  used  in  printing  the  "Congres- 
sional Record."  The  bed  is  supported  upon  a  massive 
pedestal  to  which  an  apron  is  attached.  The  platen  is 
controlled  li.v  a  heavy  doulile  screw  in  yoke  bolted  to  the 
pedestal.  The  lied  and  apron  are  heated,  each  having 
separate  controllers.  Great  care  was  necessary  to  secure 
a  uniform  temperature  over  working  surfaces. 

ff'fl.r  Stripping  Tables. — After  the  cases  have  been 
used  to  make  electrotype  shells  they  are  put  upon  the 
stripping  tables  which  melt  the  wax.  The  wax  is  col- 
lected in  a  gutter,  which  empties  into  the  wax  kettles. 
A  variable  temperature  within  moderate  limits  is  desir- 
able, according  to  the  amount  of  work  to  be  done. 

JVax  Melting  Kettles. — The  wax  is  collected  in  these 
from  the  stripping  table  and  freed  from  graphite  antl 
dirt  and  freshened  and  tempered.  A  pair  of  kettles  are 
placed  side  by  side  and  attached  to  a  drip  pan  to  facili- 
tate this  process.  The  drip  pan  is  attached  to  the  strip- 
ping table  on  one  side  and  to  a  pouring  table  on  the 
other  side.  The  heaters  are  arranged  to  give  equal  tem- 
peratures to  the  walls  of  the  kettles  and  to  prevent 
scorching  and  unnecessary  destruction  of  the  volatile 
elements  in  wax. 

Case  JJ'aniiifig  Cabinet. — Before  the  cases  are  put  un- 
der hydraulic  presses  the  wax  is  softened  at  a  moderate 
temperature  so  as  to  give  accurate  impressions.  The 
warming  cabinet   is  a  chamber   with   racks   in  which   a 


Electrical      Handbook  103 

numher  of  cases  may  be  put  to  soften  the  wax.  Electric 
heaters  are  so  distributed  as  to  give  a  uniformly  diffused 
heat  throughout  the  chamber. 

Case  Wanning  Tabic. — In  the  case  warming  cabinet 
the  wax  is  softened  equally  throughout.  The  case  warm- 
ing table  is  designed  to  heat  the  case  on  the  upper  sur- 
face only  so  as  to  secure  a  firmer  backing.  A  heated 
plate  is  placed  horizontally  above  the  table  upon  which 
the  cases  rest  with  the  wax  films  upward.  The  heating 
is  effected  by  radiation  from  a  uniformly  distril)utcd 
energy  surface. 

Wax  Knife  Cittting-Doivn  Machine. — .\fter  the  cases 
have  been  under  the  hydraulic  presses  the  wax  is  uneven 
and  ragged  around  the  impressions.  This  machine  has 
a  movable  bed  up<jn  which  the  case  rests.  It  is  then 
passed  under  a  carefull}'  heated  knife,  which  removes  all 
projections  without  defacement.  This  is  an  instructive 
example  of  the  greater  refinement  in  processes  w'hicli 
has  been  made  possible  by  electric  heating. 

Builders'-Up  Tool  Heaters. — ^Before  the  case  is  put  in 
the  electroplating  bath,  it  is  necessary  to  build  up  parts 
of  the  surface  bj^  melting  wa.x  to  run  upon  different 
points.  This  is  done  by  heated  copper  tools.  These 
tools  are  heated  upon  hooded  electric  stoves  provided 
with  broad  tool  supports. 

Sweating-On  Machine. — In  some  classes  of  work  it  is 
more  desirable  to  mount  electrotypes  upon  metal  backs 
than  upon  bo.xwood  blocks.  Stereotype  metal  blocks  of 
equal  thickness  are  heated  upon  an  electric  plate  with  a 
film  of  solder  and  fiux  between  the  block  and  the  elec- 
trotype. When  the  solder  film  is  melted  the  block  is 
placed  under  a  light  press  which  cools  it  under  pressure. 
An  electrically  heated  plate  makes  this  process  econom- 
ically possible,  owing  to  equal  temperature  over  the 
whole  surface,  so  that  several  electrotypes  may  be  sweat- 
ed on  to  their  respective  blocks  at  once. 

Soldering-iron  Heaters. — To  correct  electrotypes  and 
in.sert  new  letters  it  is  necessary  to  use  light  soldering 
irons  heated  very  hot.  Electric  soldering  irons  with 
cords  attached  had  been  found  unsuitable  for  this  work. 
Soldering-iron  heaters,  capable  of  running  continually  at 


Electrical     Handbook  195 

a  high  temperature,  were  then  adopted.  The  heat  is 
controlled  by  varying  the  voltage.  The  coppers  are  in- 
serted in  pockets  to  be  heated,  each  heater  having  two 
pockets. 

Embossing  and  Stanif'itig  Press  Heads. — Stamping  and 
embossing  require  a  variable,  uniform  temperature  in  the 
press  heads  to  increase  the  production  to  a  maximum. 
The  heads  have  to  be  strong  and  the  heaters  uninjured 
by  shock.  Each  press  is  equipped  with  a  heated  head 
and  controller  complete. 

Glue  Heater  Equipments. — The  glue  heaters  are  in- 
serted flush  in  the  benches.  The  water  bath  and  glue 
pot  are  removable.  A  cover  is  provided  which  leaves  the 
bench  smooth  for  stacking  books  to  be  bound  when  the 
water  bath  is  taken  out  and  the  cover  put  on.  A  hook 
is  arranged  on  the  bottom  of  the  heater  for  alternately 
holding  the  cover  and  the  water  bath  and  the  glue  pot. 
The  heaters  are  of  minimum  heat  capacity  and  heat  by 
conduction  and  convection  in  an  insulated  chamber. 

Glue  Cookers. — Glue  can  be  prepared  in  large  quan- 
tity in  these  cookers,  so  that  there  is  no  need  for  the 
men  to  waste  time  waiting  to  make  glue  in  small  quanti- 
ties. Large  kettles  are  fitted  steam-tight  in  a  chamber 
built  according  to  low  pressure  boiler  specifications.  The 
apparatus  is  supplied  with  water  seal,  gauge  glass,  blow- 
off  valves,  etc.,  complete.  The  heater  is  designed  for 
maximum  working  surface,  so  as  to  be  rapid  in  opera- 
tion. 

Case  Mai;ing  Machines. — Book  covers  or  cases  are 
rapidly  glued  together  in  these  machines.  A  large  shal- 
low glue  pan  is  heated  by  a  water  bath  to  which  electric 
heaters  are  attached.  These  heaters  are  in  sections  for 
facility  of  control  and  temperature  regulations. 

Book  Cover  Shaping  Machine. — The  book  covers  are 
rounded  at  the  back  by  machine  so  as  to  be  smooth  and 
of  uniform  appearance.  In  rounding,  as,  for  example, 
the  backs,  the  glue  has  to  be  softened  so  that  the  case 
will  retain  its  proper  shape.  As  the  rate  of  working  is 
fast,  a  high  temperature  is  necessary  to  secure  the  proper 
relation  of  heat  to  speed. 


196  The     Washington 

Finishers'  Tool  Heaters. — In  gilding  and  in  burning 
sheepskin  for  finishing  covers  of  various  patterns,  tools 
of  varying  sizes  and  shapes  are  employed.  The  tempera- 
ture range  is  very  great.  The  maximum  is  high  enough 
for  pyrography,  the  minimum  affords  a  low  heat  for 
gilding.  Where  pyrographic  heat  is  required,  small  re- 
cessed plates  are  heated  very  hot,  upon  which  tools  of 
varying  design  are  heated  by  conduction.  These  heated 
plates  are  controlled  by  variable  voltage.  In  addition, 
removable  plates  are  provided  to  accommodate  the  sev- 
eral patterns  of  tools  employed.  It  may  be  noted  that 
in  the  branch  bindery  at  the  Library  of  Congress  the 
heated  plates  are  placed  vertically  above  each  other  in  an 
insulated  chamber,  with  projecting  flanges  for  support- 
ing handles.  Variable  temperatures  in  the  chambers  are 
secured  by  varying  the  amount  of  heating  surface. 

Pamphlet  Covering  Machines. — The  pamphlets  pre- 
pared in  infinite  number  are  covered  by  machines  which 
rapidly  glue  the  backs  and  place  the  paper  covers  on. 
The  backs  of  the  pamphlets  are  glued  by  passing  over  a 
wheel  which  turns  in  a  large  shallow  glue  pan.  The 
glue  pan  is  of  heavy  construction  and  so  designed  with 
relation  to  mass  and  heater  surface  as  to  require  no 
water  bath. 

Sealing  JVax  Melters. — These  are  small  heated  tools 
used  to  melt  sealing  wax  in  situ  and  smoothe  the  wax 
so  as  to  prepare  it  for  the  seal  giving  a  neat,  strong 
wafer. 

Work  on  this  large  and  unique  installation  was  begun 
in  a  conservative  way  in  1898.  Each  year,  as  results  be- 
came conclusive,  small  additions  in  various  lines  were 
tried.  The  sole  consideration,  aside  from  durability  of 
heating  appliances  and  depreciation  factor,  was  whether 
a  variable  controllable  temperature  increased  production 
sufficiently  to  pay  for  the  greater  cost  of  the  heat  re- 
quired. The  answer  was  in  the  affirmative,  and  electric 
heating  appliances  have  now  been  used  in  every  process 
requiring  heat  excepting  the  stereotype  metal  pots. 

A  great  number  of  heaters  are  used,  and  in  so  large 
an  installation  the  depreciation  of  every  part  of  every 
heater  must  be  considered.  Very  large  factors  of  safety 
have  been  allowed.  In  high  temperature  work  the  en- 
ergy has  been  translated  to  voltages  giving  maximum 
mechanical  strength  to  resistances  and  ensuring  effect- 
iveness in  operation.  This  may  be  likened  to  the  trans- 
formations necessary  in  energy  for  electro-plating. 


Electrical      Handbook         197 

An  installation  representing  years  of  study  along  this 
line  involves  many  new  features,  and  it  is  believed  that 
more  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  salient  features  em- 
bodied in  this  apparatus  than  in  any  electric  heating  in- 
stallation hitherto  made.  This  treatment  of  the  subject, 
while  it  may  appear  long,  is,  in  fact,  very  superficial, 
but  is  limited  by  considerations  as  to  the  general  scope 
of  the  present  article.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  electric 
heating  plant  of  tlie  office  is  from  its  novelty  and  its 
bearing  on  a  still  undeveloped  branch  of  the  electrical 
arts  and  industry  worthy  all  the  space  here  devoted  to 
the  electrical  equipment  of  the  office  as  a  whole. 


198  The    Wa  s  hin  gt  on 

ELECTRICAL  DEPARTMENT,   DISTRICT  OF 
COLUMBIA. 

THIS  branch  of  the  municipal  government  of  the 
District    of   Cohmibia   was   established   in    July, 
1898.     Previous  to  that  time  several  bureaus  had 
portions  of  the  work  to  do,  but   on  the  above 
date  it   was  brought  under  one  head.     The  department 
has    supervisory   authority   over   the   electrical    work   iu 
connection   with   the   following: 

Electric  lighting  and  power  companies,  street  railway 
companies,  telegraph  and  telephone  companies,  and  the- 
aters, halls  and  other  places  of  public  assembly.  The 
municipal  control  over  the  semi-public  corporations  is 
confined  to  the  use  by  those  companies  of  the  public 
space.  The  department  also  has  charge  of  the  lighting 
of  the  District  with  gas.  naphtha  and  electric  lamps.  It 
also  operates  and  maintains  a  complete  fire-alarm  sys- 
tem, a  police  patrol  system  and  a  telephone  system  con- 
nected with  the  various  offices  and  residences  of  offi- 
cials and  all  municipal  buildings. 

All  work  in  connection  with  the  lighting  of  the  pub- 
lic streets  is  done  by  private  corporations,  operating 
under  annual  contracts  with  the  District.  All  material 
and  labor  used  in  this  work  is  supplied  by  the  various 
contracting  companies  at  a  flat  rate  per  annum  for  each 
lamp  maintained.  The  department  inspectors  give  care- 
ful attention  to  the  character  of  service  furnished  by 
the  companies  and  bring  all  matters  of  delinquent  serv- 
ice to  their  notice.  All  changes  and  extensions  to  the 
lighting  S3'stem  are  ordered  through  the  depar!;nient, 
the  companies  doing  the  necessary  work  wherever  re- 
quired. There  are  now  maintained  throughout  the 
District  6,700  gas  lamps  of  the  old  style  flat-flame 
burner,  950  Welsbach  gas  lamps,  1,400  Welsbach  naph- 
tha lamps.  900  incandescent  electric  lamps  of  25-candle- 
power  each,  and  990  electric  arc  lamps.  The  incan- 
descent electric  lamps  are  used  principally  in  the  sub- 
urban portions  of  the  District,  where  overhead  wires 
are  not  objectionable. 


Electrical     Han  d  bo  o  k         109 

The  electric  arc  lamps,  with  the  exception  of  about 
thirty,  are  entirely  maintained  hy  means  of  underground 
wires.  Approximately  3H0  of  them  are  of  the  low-ten- 
sion enclosed  type,  operated  in  multiple  on  the  Edison 
three-wire  system,  and  are  distributed  in  the  heart  of 
the  business  section  of  the  city  within  the  low-tension 
area  of  the  electric  lightng  company.  The  balance  of 
the  arc  lamps  (about  610  in  number)  arc  of  the  series 
enclosed  type.  On  account  of  the  heavy  foliage  on  the 
trees  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  hang  the  lamps 
from  nine-foot  arms  attached  to  poles  located  at  the 
curb  line  and  at  a  distance  from  the  pavement  less  than 
would  be  the  case  if  the  space  to  be  lighted  were  un- 
obstructed. On  this  account,  too,  the  lights  are  some- 
what closer  together  than  they  otherwise  would  be. 
The  ])rincipal  business  streets  of  the  District  are  now 
lighted  by  these  lamps,  and  in  some  cases  a  few  of  the 
more  important  residence  streets  on  which  there  is  a 
great  amount  of  traffic. 

The  fire-alarm  system  maintained  by  the  department 
consists  of  a  complete  central  office  equipment  with 
one  four-dial,  four-number  manual  transmitter,  one 
three-dial  three-number  manual  transmitter,  two  trans- 
mitters for  sending  preliminary  signals,  four  multiple 
pen  registers  of  ten  circuits  each  for  receiving  alarms, 
together  with  all  the  necessary  signalling  and  switching 
devices  for  such  a  system.  There  are  380  fire-alarm 
boxes  operating  on  thirty  circuits,  the  number  of  bo.xes 
on  each  circuit  varying  with  its  length.  The  shorter 
downtown  circuits  have  from  twelve  to  twenty  boxes 
each,  while  those  running  to  the  extreme  corners  of 
the  District  have  in  some  cases  from  six  to  ten  boxes 
each.  Some  of  the  latter  circuits  are  over  twenty-five 
miles  in  total  length.  Storage  batteries  are  used  ex- 
clusively for  the  operation  of  the  system,  the  normal 
discharge  rate  per  cell  being  about  5^  of  an  ampere. 
The  circuits  are  normally  closed,  so  that  a  break  in  any 
one  of  them  is  instantaneously  recorded  at  the  central 
office. 

By  Act  of  Congress  the  telephone  company  operating 
within  the  District  is  required  to  furnish  free  of  charge 


^00  The      Wa  s  kin  gt  o  n 

sufficient  space  in  its  conduits  and  on  its  overhead  lines 
for  the  wires  and  cables  of  the  tire-alarm  and  police- 
])atrol  and  telephone  systems.  Advantage  is  taken  of 
this  to  a  great  extent,  and  the  department  now  has  in 
the  telephone  conduits  42  miles  of  cable  containing  1,819 
miles  of  conductors.  When  the  work  of  the  present 
fiscal  year  is  completed  the  underground  cables  will 
practically  reach  all  points  within  the  city  limits.  When- 
ever a  fire-alarm  box,  a  patrol  station,  a  school,  an 
engine  house,  police  station,  or  other  public  building  is 
located  near  the  conduits  of  the  company  connections 
are  made  thereto  by  the  department  and  all  overhead 
wires  removed.  Neat  ornamental  posts  are  used  for 
supporting  the  fire-alarm  and  patrol  boxes,  on  top  of 
which  lights  are  maintained  to  illuminate  street  designa- 
tions and  to  furnish  a  red  light  in  case  of  the  fire-alarm 
boxes. 

About  230  police-patrol  stations  are  maintained,  each 
precinct  having  its  own  separate  system^,  with  the  boxes 
located  within  it  connected  directly  thereto.  These 
boxes  contain  telephones  as  well  as  signalling  devices 
and  are  of  great  assistance  to  the  police  department  in 
its   work. 

The  telephone  system  comprises  switchboards  for  350 
stations,  about  250  of  which  are  in  service.  All  the 
District  offices  and  municipal  buildings  and  the  resi- 
dences of  the  more  important  officials  are  connected  to 
the  system. 

The  department  also  draws  up  plans  for  the  wiring 
of  all  municipal  buildings  and  supervises  the  installa- 
tion of  the  wires  and  apparatus. 

An  important  feature  of  the  work  of  this  department 
is  the  inspection  of  all  electrical  wiring  and  apparatus 
installed  in  buildings,  both  public  and  private.  The 
authority  for  this  inspection  was  granted  by  Congress  at 
its  last  session,  and  additional  inspectors  were  provided 
for  that  purpose.  A  complete  set  of  rules  and  regu- 
lations governing  electrical  wiring  were  drawn  up. 
based  on  the  requirements  of  the  National  Board  of 
Fire  Underwriters.  Active  work  under  these  new  regu- 
lations   began    on    September    i    of    the    present    year. 


Electrical     Handbook 


201 


Hereafter  tlie  plans  for  all  new  wiring  must  be  approved 
by  the  department  before  permission  will  be  granted" 
for  the  installation,  and  inspections  will  be  made  from 
time  to  time  during  the  progress  of  the  work.  As  far 
as  possible,  inspections  will  also  be  made  of  all  prem- 
ises where  electric  current  is  used  and  wherever  de- 
fective wiring  is  found  to  exist  it  will  be  ordered  either 
removed  or  put  in  safe  condition. 

This  department  has  been  most  active  in  the  matter 
of  removing  wires  and  poles  from  the  streets  within 
the  built-up  portion  of  the  District.  Aided  by  the  legis- 
lation enacted  by  Congress  from  time  to  time  on  this 
subject,  and  by  the  remarkable  public  spirit  of  the  cor- 
porations concerned,  the  department  has  succeeded  in 
keeping  the  streets  fairly  clear  of  these  obstructions. 
The  principal  wires  which  now  remain  overhead  are 
those  of  the  telegraph  companies,  and  legislation  is 
looked  for  at  the  next  session  of  Congress  granting  the 
necessary  authority  for  their  removal. 


202  The    Washington 

ITINERARY  FOR  WASHINGTON, 
September  20,  1904. 


Arrival  of  train  P.  R.  R.  depot 7.30  A.  M. 

Breakfast  at  New  Willard  hotel,  Four- 
teenth   and    Pennsylvania    avenue 8.00  A.   M. 

Leave  for  Bureau  of  Standards  from  Fif- 
teenth and  New  York  avenue  sharp 9.00  A.   si. 

Arrival  at  Bureau  of  Standards 9.30  A.  M. 

Leave   Bureau   at    10.30  A.  M, 

Arrive  at  U.  S.  Capitol 11. 15  A.  AL 

Leave   Capitol   and   proceed   on   foot  to   the 

Library  of   Congress   at    1.2.30  A.  ]\L 

After  a  brief  inspection  of  the  Library  build- 
ing- the  party  will  repair  to  the  cafe  on 
the  top  floor,  where  lunch  will  be  served 
at     1 .00  P.  ^L 

After  luncheon — at  2  P.  M. — the  party  will  be  divided 
into  groups  and  visits  paid  to  one  of  the  following 
list  of  points  of  interest : 

1.  Central  Stations. 

2.  Telephone  Centrals. 

3.  Navy  Yard,  including  the  Experimental  Model 
Basin,  the  Gun  Shops,  and  the  Wireless  Telegraph 
Station. 

4.  The  Government  Printing  Office. 

5.  Mount  Vernon. 

6.  The  Treasury,  White  House,  State,  War  and 
Navy   Departments,   and   Corcoran   Art  Gallery. 

7.  Washington  Monument,  Bureau  of  Engraving  and 
Printing,  Smithsonian  Institution  and  National  Museum. 

Supper  at  New  Willard  hotel 6.30  P.  ]\L 

Train  leaves  P.  R.  R.  station  for  Phila- 
delphia   at    S.oo  P.  'M. 

Passes  through   Baltimore    9.00  P.  i\L 

Passes  through   Wilmington    10.20  P.  M. 

Passes  through   Chester    10.40  P.  M. 

Arrives  Philadelphia,  Broad  street 11.00  P.  ^f. 

The  several  groups  during  the  afternoon  will  be 
under  the  care  and  guidance  of  local  members  of  the 
Institute,  who  will  see  in  each  case  that  their  parties 
return  to  the  hotel  m  ample  time. 


Electrical     Handbook         JOS 


IReception  Committee 

Geo.  H,  Harries,  Chairman 
Philander  Betts,  Secretary 
Alex.  Graham  Bell  Chas.  W.  Needham 

Frank  H.  Bethell  Lt.  Col.  Samuel  Reber,  U.  S.  A. 

Maj.  John  Biddle,  U.  S.  A.     E.  B.  Rosa 
Geo.  T.  Dunlop  L.  E.  Sinclair 

R.  A.  Fessenden  S.  W.  Stratton 

Bernard  R.  Green  O.  H.  Tittman 

Willis  L.  Moore  Chas.  D.  Walcott 

H.  W.  Fuller  F.  a.  Wolff 


^Finance  Committee 

Frank  H.  Bethell,   Chairman 

D.  S.  Carll  Harold  Lomas 
Proctor  L.  Dougherty        R.  A.  Klock 
H.  H.  Seabrook                     John  P.  Judge 

E.  E.  Clement  Walter  C.  Allen 


publication  Committee 

Geo.  H.  Harries  Philander  Betts 

Samuel  Reber  Frank  H.  Bethell 


Wj^  T  h  e     Washington 

From  Washington  to  Philadelphia  via  the  Pennsyl- 
vania railroad  the  distance  is  137.6  miles,  and  the  major 
portion  of  the  territory  traversed  is  agricultural  in  its 
uses.  Three  cities  lie  between  the  termini  of  the  three- 
hour  after-dark  journey — Baltimore,  'Sid.,  Wilmington, 
Del.,   and   Chester,   Pa. 

Baltimore,  nearly  forty-two  miles  from  the  National 
Capital,  has  a  population  of  550.000.  and  is  the  busiest 
and  most  prosperous  of  the  Southland  cities.  Still 
suffering  from  the  shock  of  that  conflagration  which 
destroyed  nearly  one  hundred  millions  of  dollars' 
worth  of  property',  it  has  nevertheless  pushed  valiantly 
toward  a  reconstructed  business  district  and  great 
commercial  growth.  Four  hundred  miles  of  electric 
railway,  over  the  tracks  of  which  run  about  sixteen 
hundred  cars,  afford  the  traveling  public  excellent  ac- 
commodation. 

Wilmington.  Del.,  is  110.8  miles  from  Washington. 
A  hive  of  industry,  where  85,000  people  contribute 
notably  to  the  country's  output  of  manufactures.  With 
an  invested  capital  of  about  fifteen  millions  of  dollars 
the  products  exceed   twenty   millions  annually. 

Chester,  Pa.,  thirteen  miles  southeast  of  Philadel- 
phia, has  about  thirtj'-six  thousand  inhabitants,  the 
majority  employed  in  great  establishments,  the  output 
of  which  per  capita  is  tremendous;  the  total  created 
value  in  1900  (the  year  of  the  last  census)  being 
$564,323,762. 


Electrical     Handbook         205 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

TAGE. 

Introductory — The   City  of  Washington    5 

Electrical  Development  in  the  United  States 17 

The   National   Bureau  of  Standards 47 

Transportation  and  Illumination — the  Develop- 
ment of  the  Conduit  System  of  Street  Rail- 
roads      78 

The  Washington  Railway  and  Electric  Company.  .  83 

The   Potomac  Electric  Power  Company 93 

The  System  of  the  Capital  Traction  Company loi 

The  Telephone  Plant  of  Washington 117 

Electricity  in  the  Army  133 

Electricity  in  the  Xavy 147 

The   Government   Testing   Tank    for    Ship    Models 

at  the  Washington   Xavy  Yard 167 

Electricity   in   the   Government    Printing   Office....  175 
The  Electrical  Department.  District  of  Columbia.  .  198 
Itinerary   for   visitors    in    Washington   on    Septem- 
ber 20,   1904 202 

Auf  Wledcrschcn 204 

Map  of  Washington. 


TK 
F^5 


THE  LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

Santa  Barbara 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW. 


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